The Role of Assessment in Facilitating Student Transition to ‘Active’ Citizenship
Author(s):
Simon Child (presenting / submitting) Prerna Carroll Ellie Darlington
Conference:
ECER 2015
Network:
09. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Measurement
Format:
Paper

Session Information

09 SES 12 B, Assessing Citizenship and Cosmopolitanism

Paper Session

Time:
2015-09-11
09:00-10:30
Room:
328. [Main]
Chair:
Julian Fraillon

Contribution

Across Europe, the status and focus of citizenship education within national curricula has been debated. Whilst in some countries (such as Spain) the status of citizenship education as part of the curriculum in schools has been challenged (Proeschel, 2014), in others debates typically centre on defining the desired outcomes of citizenship education for students, and how these outcomes can be enacted through the curriculum or assessment (Boss, 2014; Dimitrov &  Boyadjieva, 2009). The interaction between desired educational outcomes, entrenched curriculum frameworks and underlying political agendas have led to different approaches to citizenship education within European nations (Eurydice Network, 2012) and further afield (Torney-Purta, Lehmann, Oswald & Schulz, 2001). For example, while some countries teach citizenship as a standalone subject, others integrate citizenship education within other disciplines (e.g. history). There are also differences between countries in terms of the age citizenship education is taught, its content, and whether it is formally assessed (Eurydice Network, 2012).

Children’s conceptions of citizenship are shaped by their schooling, family, the media and public figures (Crick, 1998). In recent years, citizenship has been conceptualised as not just the understanding of rights and responsibilities, but also the contribution of time and commitment (Orton, 2006). This so-called ‘active’ citizenship has been linked to peoples’ engagement and participation, either with the state or amongst themselves (Good Governance Learning Network, 2013). The neo-liberal perspective underlying this definition of citizenship education sees individuals as fully self-regulated, active members of the community, with little reliance on the state. This is in contrast to ‘passive’ definitions of citizenship that place greater emphasis on status, national identity and obedience (Ross, 2008).   

The appropriate assessment of citizenship is a significant challenge for curriculum developers and practitioners (Kerr, Keating & Ireland, 2009). The assessment of ‘active’ citizenship is particularly problematic, due to its focus on student participation and responsibility. For example, assessments of citizenship need to assess skills not just within a school context but must also be able to make valid claims about students’ subsequent transition into adulthood. However, when developing an assessment of ‘active’ citizenship, it is also necessary to meet the demands of national regulatory bodies that are concerned with assessment reliability and standards over time. For example, in the United Kingdom, recent reforms to general qualifications have made externally marked examinations the default method of assessment (Ofqual, 2013). This programme of reform means that examination boards that develop citizenship qualifications are required to develop innovative solutions to the assessment of citizenship within the constraints of the educational system.  

Research has not previously investigated international perspectives concerning the assessment of ‘active’ citizenship of students via formal, summative qualifications. In light of this knowledge gap, the first aim of the study was to develop a working definition for ‘active’ citizenship, based on previous literature. We then aimed to analyse curriculum and assessment materials related to the teaching and assessment of citizenship in international jurisdictions. This was with the aim to establish areas of consensus and contrast in their approaches to the formal assessment of ‘active’ citizenship as part of the qualifications systems.  

Method

The research project comprised an initial literature review, followed by an analysis of curriculum and assessment materials related to the formal assessment of citizenship. For the literature review, materials were collected and collated that specifically related to the definition and conceptualisation of citizenship, with a specific focus on ‘active’ participation. This included (but was not limited to) government documentation, academic journal articles, websites, and documents published by non-governmental organisations. This allowed the research team to develop a working definition of ‘active’ citizenship, which guided the second phase of the research. Countries were chosen for the analysis based on three criteria. First, citizenship had to be included in the curriculum at secondary school. Secondly, the curriculum had to include an element of ‘active’ citizenship, as determined by the previous literature review. Thirdly, details on the assessment of ‘active’ citizenship for the country had to be available (in English) through web searches, journal articles, or other obtainable documents. Jurisdictions that met these criteria included England and Wales, Ireland, the USA (States of Washington and Florida), Australia, and Singapore. Other instruments that targeted multiple countries (e.g. the ICCS) were also included in the analysis of assessment approaches. In each of the jurisdictions, sections of the curriculum that related to ‘active’ citizenship were identified. Assessments related to these units were coded according to four main categories: whether the assessment is formative or summative; the named assessment objectives; whether the assessment is internally or externally assessed; and the assessment mode (examination, coursework etc.).

Expected Outcomes

The literature review revealed that the definition of ‘active’ citizenship is ever-changing and greatly depends on context within individual countries. The most common definitions stress civic and social responsibility coupled with political literacy. Students’ proactive demonstration of these factors was a principle aim of curriculum content related to citizenship education. Typical methods of enacting students’ active participation include their involvement in democratic processes within the schooling structure (e.g. councils), or participation in community service based activities. The jurisdictions targeted in the present analysis used a variety of approaches to assess ‘active’ citizenship. Whilst civic knowledge is typically assessed using examination methods, in contrast students’ participation and engagement in the community was assessed via peer review, teacher observations or debates. There were some examples, however, of tasks where students had to reflect on their own experiences or simulate the experience of others (e.g. using a hypothetical situation) in an extended piece of writing. This approach is likely in response to the imperative in some jurisdictions to utilise externally marked examinations.

References

Boss, G. (2014). The role and purpose of citizenship in the curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.citized.info/pdf/students/George%20Boss.pdf. Crick, B. R. (1998). Education for citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools. London: QCA. Crick, B. R. (2007). Citizenship: the political and the democratic. British Journal of Educational Studies, 55(3), 235-248. Dimitrov, G., & Boyadjieva, P. (2009). Citizenship education as an instrument for strengthening the state's supremacy: An apparent paradox? Citizenship Studies, 13(2), 153-169. Eurydice Network. (2012). Citizenship Education Across Europe. Retrieved from http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/139EN.pdf Good Governance Learning Network. (2013). Active Citizenship matters: Perspectives from civil society on local governance in South Africa. Cape Town: Good Governance Learning Network. Kerr, D., Keating, A. & Ireland, E. (2009). Pupil Assessment in Citizenship Education: Purposes, Practices and Possibilities. Report of a CIDREE Collaborative Project. Slough: NFER/CIDREE. Proeschel, C. (2014). The legal battle surrounding education for citizenship in Spain. Paper presented at the Conference of the European Consortium for Political Research, Edinburgh, UK. Ofqual. (2013). GCSE Reform Consultation June 2013. Retrieved from http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/files/2013-06-11-gcse-reform-consultation-june-2013.pdf Orton, M. (2006). Wealth, citizenship and responsibility: The views of “better off” citizens in the UK. Citizenship Studies, 10(2), 251-265. Ross, A. (2008). Organizing a curriculum for active citizenship education. In I. D. Arthur, The Sage handbook of education for citizenship and democracy (pp. 492-505). London: Sage. Torney-Purta, J., Lehmann, R., Oswald, H., and Schulz, W. (2001). Citizenship and education in twenty-eight countries: Civic knowledge and engagement at age fourteen. Amsterdam: IEA.

Author Information

Simon Child (presenting / submitting)
Cambridge Assessment
Assessment Research and Development
Cambridge
Prerna Carroll
Cambridge Assessment, United Kingdom
Ellie Darlington
Cambridge Assessment, United Kingdom

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