Objectives and theoretical framework

The use of new technologies has become increasingly important in the light of the rapid digital transformation made in what is commonly referred to as the digital age. Consequently, the use of new technologies and the acquisition of technology-related competences have been widely considered relevant and even indispensable for participation in a modern knowledge and information society and the future (UNESCO, 2018). The European Commission differentiates the necessary skills into five key components, which contribute to student’s ability to deal with cyber risks in the sense of the C3 der C3 (cyberethics, cybersafety, and cybersecurity; Pusey & Sadera, 2011). Schools are now facing the challenge of imparting these digital competences to their students (Eickelmann, 2018). In this context, tablet computers are seen as means of providing a variety of opportunities as mobile learning devices (Soffer & Efrat, 2017). International studies based on an increasing dissemination of tablet computers around the world have found tablet computers to have a positive impact at various levels of student learning. The effects include individual dimensions such as cognitive and metacognitive competencies (e.g. learning strategies and efficacy) as well as affective aspects such as motivation and also inter-individual collaboration and collegiality (cf. Li, Pow, Wong & Fung, 2010). With tablet computers combining the benefits of built-in cameras, microphones and post-processing software for recorded media and multimedia working tools in one product, they also allow for the individualized installation of so-called applications in order to expand their range of functions at will. Tablet computers are further considered to be advantageous due to their fast applicability, their direct and user-friendly handling as well as their extended battery service life and resistance to system failures or manipulations (ibid.). With regards to their pedagogical use, tablet computers are assumed to improve students’ individual advancement, enhance the flexibility of teaching and learning arrangements, establish collaborative working processes and assist in comprehensively supporting students’ media competence (cf. Geer, White, Zeegers, Au & Barnes 2017; Soffer & Yaron 2017; Woloshyn, Bajovic & Worden 2017). While research focusing on tablet computers for different educational purposes is increasingly common, the frequency of use by school subjects as well as the relationship between the use of tablet computers and skills such as digital literacy or computer literacy have so far not been a key research interest. For Germany, there are currently no results available concerning the relationship of tablet use and students’ computer literacy. Therefore, the question arises as to how the use of tablets in the classroom, considering the context of current and future social challenges such as cyber risks, is related to an improvement of computer literacy.

Methodology In order to answer the research question, the data provided by the TiGer project (Evaluating and reflecting tablet computers at upper secondary schools) is used (Drossel & Eickelmann, 2017). This project used expert guidance in the process of introducing tablet computers to Grade 7 students at an upper secondary school (Gymnasium) in Germany. Two (N=43) out of five parallel classes were fully equipped with tablet computers, while the remaining three classes (N=62) continued without tablets, hence serving as control groups. The concomitant research involved an elaborate triangulation design of multiple perspectives over a period of two years. The focus of this research contribution is placed on a quantitative student survey with three points of measurement (N=105). The first data was generated at the beginning of the 2014/2015 school year when the students were not yet in possession of any tablet computers (pretest; Time of Measurement 1; ToM 1). The second data was collected at the end of the 2014/2015 school year, with tablet class students having worked with tablet computers while students from the control group had not (ToM 2). At the end of 2015/2016 following another school year, the students were tested again (ToM 3). Furthermore, the quantitative data was subsequently complemented by qualitative teacher data (N=6), which was gathered in the form of open-ended questions in teacher questionnaires (at ToM 2 and ToM 3). For the purpose of assessing students’ computer literacy, a test from the National Educational Panel Study (NEPS), in which a computer literacy test for students in different grades was developed (Senkbeil et al., 2013), was used. This tests also includes items which represent the before mentioned Digital Competence Framework for Citizens (Vuorikari et al., 2016) which are necessary to avoid cyber risks. The paper-pencil test consisting of 36 tasks depicts real-life problems embedded in a range of authentic situations using screenshots. In order to estimate item and person parameters for computer literacy, a partial credit model was used and estimated in ConQuest (Wu et al., 1997). As the same computer literacy tests were used at all measurement points, the item parameters of ToM 1 are implemented to estimate the item difficulty of ToM 2 and ToM 3. The results show that the items exhibited good item fit. Furthermore, the test showed high reliability for the three measurement points (.974/.971/.972) and the different comprehension requirements support a unidimensional construct.

Results In order to describe students’ achievement, the weighted maximum likelihood estimates (WLEs, Warm 1989), which were previously transformed to a mean score of 500 with a standard deviation of 100, are reported with a view to enabling better interpretation of the results. The correlation of the WLEs amounts to .685 for the tablet classes and .678 for the control group. This suggests that the computer literacy construct remains relatively stable over time. The average achievement of the students taught in tablet classes before obtaining the devices lies at 473 scale points, thereby displaying significantly lower scores in comparison with their fellow students from the control group (521 scale points). This result remains in force even after the introduction of tablet computers and repeated computer literacy measurement procedures after the school year. Both the control group and the tablet students attain – on average – the same level of competencies as they did at ToM 1, resulting in the fact that tablet students yet again show a significantly lower average level of achievement regarding computer literacy. However, two years after the introduction of tablets in the two tablet classes, changes in performance are apparent although they are different from those expected. On the one hand, the tablet students perform significantly less well than in the two preceding years (448 scale points). On the other hand, the students in the control group perform significantly higher (540 scale points). However, looking at the evaluations made by the teachers who are teaching the tablet classes, substantial improvements are being observed. This is especially true concerning the safe and reflected handling of the technologies.

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