The year 1919 saw the publication of The Teaching of English in Schools, the proceedings from perhaps the then largest ever gathering of English teachers in England who met at a conference in Reading organised by the English Association (EA). Coming just after the end of the Great War that ravaged Europe, the consensus is that the 'creative spirit' (Sharwood Smith in EA, 1919: 30) is fundamental both for the growth of 'the true self of the child' (ibid) and the common good. It argues that an English education comprising an empathetic reading of literature, encouragement to enjoy experimenting with language, and the development of their written and spoken expression, enables pupils to 'develop humanity' (Chairman in EA, 1919:3): accordingly, English was viewed as the primary means of ultimately maintaining the peace. Further, it was recognised that English had been voted the world language by the Northern Peace Union after World War I (Newbolt: 1921) and thus English educators had responsibilities on an international level as well as a national.

Seventy years later, in 1989, the first English National Curriculum (NC) was launched (Cox, 1989). The English orders are prefaced with a rich discussion on what English education is for and of what it should consist. Prominent within this is the importance of English 'in a European context' (1989: 58), with reference both to English as an international language of commerce and the role of English in fostering 'inter-cultural contact within the European community' (ibid) through celebrating language within this 'richer linguistic and cultural context' (ibid). In parallel with the EA publication, the NC argues that the two complementary purposes of English are, first to develop the individual child and, second, to prepare her for the adult world. It promotes an English education in which creative approaches are used to support the development of knowledge and skills, facility with and enjoyment of language, empathy and understanding.

Now, in 2019, we have the seventh iteration of the NC (QCA, 2014). Within the English orders can be found absolutely no reference to the role of language in international relations. In a narrowing of literary options, the English literary heritage is promoted at the expense of texts written by international authors (whether in English or in translation). There is a heavy emphasis on acquiring knowledge and on grammar and accuracy; all references to creativity (and any word containing the 'create' root) have disappeared. At the time of writing, Britain is torn with debates about Brexit and its place in the wider world: in tune with the theme of this conference, it is a time of national risk.

This paper examines the three documents summarised above in depth, focusing on their explicit and implicit messages about the role of school English. It explores to what extent there is a correlation between how the various English curricula position the role of English in an international context and how they value creativity. Without wishing to over-simplify complex issues, it questions whether what happens in English classrooms contributes to English politics.

As an erstwhile English teacher and now English teacher educator working with early-career and established English teachers, and in addition being active within the National Association for the Teaching of English and promoting the work of the National Writing Project (NWP) through running the regional Teachers as Writers group, the paper builds upon my PhD thesis. Understanding the curricula of the past (particularly their positions on English within the international context) may help the English teachers of the future consider the type of English they wish to teach and how they wish to teach it. 

My research takes a hermeneutic approach. Hermeneutics is a philosophy that enables the framing of the inquiry in the spirit of the inquiry, and combines my interest in language, literature, culture and history. Hermeneutics first developed when scholars began to understand that a historical text could not be interpreted through a contemporary lens and that a single text might offer different ‘truths’ as each person might interpret it in her own way. The eminent philosopher Dilthey (1833-1911) saw that all human history can be interpreted as a grand narrative, ‘just like a novel or story’ (Sherratt, 2006: 71): the events that shape our lives are episodes in a never-ending tale. Dilthey's major contribution to hermeneutic thought is that ideas should be examined in relation to the social and cultural context from which they come. Thus, small events can be interpreted in terms of larger ones (a battle in the context of a war) and it is important to know details of the ‘characters’ involved to understand things from their perspective and so interpret their actions. Thus, there is the need for us to use our imagination to see through another’s eyes and come to a hermeneutic understanding. Hermeneutics is therefore a creative paradigm, concerned as it is with finding meanings through a synthesis of interpretation. Because hermeneutists are always questioning in their search for a deeper interpretation and understanding, the conclusions reached and knowledge gained are never static or secure, but simply the basis for the next question. For hermeneutists, ontology and epistemology are bound together: ontological ‘truth’, or 'knowledge,' is constantly emerging, ongoing; yet is simultaneously checked and revised through epistemological inquiry. My work is influenced by that of Hans Georg Gadamer (1900-2002). A follower of Dilthey, he developed the theory of the hermeneutic circle that enables the reader to gain understanding by concentrating on what matters by allowing her to ‘direct [her] gaze on the things themselves’ (2004: 269), avoiding distraction. It can be envisaged like the focusing in and out of a microscope, enabling one to examine a portion of a sample on the slide in detail, then zoom out to see the entire sample, then zoom in to take a close look at another portion, in order to learn more about the whole substance. I apply this approach using the five features of hermeneutic methodology developed by Kinsella (2006).

From my understanding of the three documents to date, I suggest that there is a correlation between i) a view of English that promotes both inner growth and an outward-looking interest in culture and society with ii) a creative approach to subject pedagogy. The English Association in 1919 and Cox in 1989 actively promote English as a means of developing international relationships; both advocate creative English teaching. The 2014 National Curriculum references neither international relationships nor creativity. Should this paper be accepted, I will prepare for the conference by seeking to understand in more detail – through examining the respective writers, audience and purposes and details of the documents - whether these apparent connections are coincidental or significant and, if significant, whether the various English documents reflect the political mood of the time or help to create it.

Cox, B (1989) English for ages 5 to 16: Proposals of the Secretary of State for Education and Science and the Secretary of State for Wales. London: Department of Education and Science and the Welsh Office DfE (2014) The national curriculum in England: Key stages 3 and 4 framework document. Available online at:https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study English Association, The (1919) English Teaching in Schools in English Association, The (1907-21) Pamphlets on the Teaching of English, available at: https://archive.org/details/pamphletsonteach00engl [last accessed 12.01.16] Gadamer, HG (1975/2004, 2nd edition revised) Truth and Method. London and New York: Continuum Kinsella, E (2006) Hermeneutics and Critical Hermeneutics: Exploring Possibilities within the Art of Interpretation in Forum. Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, [S.l.], v 7, n 3, May, available at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/145/319 [last accessed: 04.02.16] McCallum, A (2012) Creativity and Learning in Secondary English. Abingdon: Routledge Newbolt et al (1921; this edition 1934) The Teaching of English in England (being the Report of the Departmental Committee Appointed by the President of the Board of Education to Inquire into the Position of English in the Educational System of England). London: HMSO Sherratt, Y. (2006) Continental philosophy of social science: hermeneutics, genealogy and critical theory from Ancient Greece to the twenty-first century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Smith, L (2018) ‘We’re Not Building Worker Bees.’ What Has Happened to Creative Practice in England Since the Dartmouth Conference of 1966? Changing English, DOI:10.1080/1358684X.2018.1532786 Smith, L (2018) The Impact of the Blue Books prior to Dartmouth in Goodwyn et al (2018) The Future of English Teaching Worldwide: Celebrating 50 years from the Dartmouth Conference. London: Routledge. Pp 52-64