Positive attitudes towards learning with ICT not only play an important mediating role for the development of students’ computer and information competencies (Aesert & van Braak, 2014), but are also powerful predictors for future academic and career choices (Papastergiou, 2008). The differences observed between genders with respect to ICT-attitudes and ICT self-efficacy - again confirmed in recent meta analyses - therefore merit critical attention (Cai et al., 2017), especially since girls obtain scores similar to or higher than boys regarding CIL-competence in computer-based tests (Fraillon et al., 2014).

Given their, on average, less positive ICT-attitudes, the increasing presence of educational technologies in schools could result in a disadvantage for girls, due to decreased motivation and engagement in digital learning environments, as predicted by theoretical approaches such as the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010) or the Technology Acceptance Model (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). These gender differences can be particularly consequential since ICT-attitudes, use and competencies influence each other, with negative attitudes potentially leading to diminished use and subsequently reduced competences, then further adversely affecting attitudes (Howard et al., 2016) – leading to a vicious circle. It therefore seems significant that over the course of their education, students have the chance to develop positive and differentiated attitudes towards learning with digital media.

Research has identified a number of individual factors that might explain the variation in ICT attitudes between male and female students, such as differences in ICT use at home (Aesert & van Braak, 2014) and differing experiences with computers or technological toys in recreational settings (Rohatgi et al., 2016). On average, girls come into contact with digital media at a later age than boys (Papastergiou, 2008). Furthermore, differences regarding gender stereotypes, social influence and encouragement by parents and peers play an important role (Meelissen & Drent, 2008; Cheryan et al., 2015).

Beyond these factors, the experiences girls make when learning with digital technologies at school also play an important role (Rohatgi et al., 2016). The results of recent studies in tablet classes suggest that learning with personal digital devices leads to a reduction of the gap between female and male students (Dündar & Akçayır,  2014). However, the present state of research remains inconclusive (Villani et al. 2018) and results could be influenced by the specific ICT-supported activities (Rohatgi et al., 2016). Classes equipped with personal digital devices often feature different types of digital applications than traditional computer-supported  teaching, which could potentially have a positive effect on the ICT-attitude of girls. Also, ICT-use might be embedded in a different teaching culture (e.g. more student-centred), possibly mitigating the gender-specific differences in attitudes and competences among students (e.g. Hochweber & Vieluf, 2018).

Finally, there is evidence that teachers in their capacity as role models could also have an influence on gender differences (ibid.).

Overall, some important questions have not been resolved by previous research. For example, it remains unclear how the ICT attitudes of boys and girls develop over the course of primary school and what roles both technology-based teaching and the individual teacher can play here.

Consequently, this study explores the following research questions:

• To what extent do gender differences manifest in the classes studied and how do they develop over the course of primary school?

• What role do specific ICT-supported activities play? Does a greater focus on creativity and learning products in the use of digital technology lead to lower gender differences (Hatzigianni et al., 2016)?

• What influence does the teacher have as a role model, i.e. do competent, positive teachers have smaller gender differences in their classes? Is the teacher’s own gender of significance?

The data stems from a large study regarding longitudinal changes to ICT- and learning-related attitudes, competencies and teaching and learning activities in 11 Swiss public schools, consisting of about N= 40 classes with a total n= 800 students in grades 3 to 6. Online questionnaires were administered to students and teachers of each class. The first phase of the survey took place in the fall of 2015 (t1), the final one four years later in 2018 (t4) with two additional measurements in 2016 and 2017. At t1, the sample included classes with and without personal digital devices (tablets), while by t4 almost all students were equipped with personal tablets. In this presentation we will detail both cross-sectional results and results from our first longitudinal analysis. Due to the nested structure of the data, multilevel regression analysis for two levels (student, classroom/teacher) was undertaken for the cross-sectional data. It was examined whether different types of ICT-use as well as positive ICT-attitudes and competencies of teachers show a positive effect on ICT attitudes of male and female students, and whether these factors can explain variation in gender differences between classes. Since individual factors such as personal educational and recreational use of ICT, perceived ICT competency, or parental ICT attitudes also play an important role, these were controlled for in the model.

The results show that in general, boys tend to have a more positive attitude towards learning with ICT compared to girls. This difference slightly increases over the course of the primary school years (grade 3 to 6). Our first preliminary analyses indicate that girls and boys in 3rd grade are still on a more or less equal level with regard to their ICT-attitude; but in subsequent years the ICT-attitude of boys evolves more positively than that of girls. Based on the assumption of differential outcomes, we will conduct additional analyses on specific aspects of ICT-attitude (affective, cognitive, conative; compare Meelissen & Drent, 2008). With respect to self-efficacy regarding learning with ICT, results were not as clear, but suggested very small or nonexistent differences between boys and girls. In terms of differences in ICT-attitude between boys and girls within one class, there is substantial variation between the classes in our sample. That is, the relationship between gender and ICT-attitude varies significantly between classes. Using multilevel analyses, we will examine the influence of specific ICT-supported learning activities and teacher characteristics on the variation of this relationship. We suspect that a more creative and learning-product oriented use of digital technologies might play an important role here, and that female teachers could act as influential role models for girls. Based on our findings, we will discuss technology-supported teaching and learning scenarios in which both girls and boys can develop positive attitudes towards the use of digital technologies, and how teachers can counter gender-stereotypical tendencies in their class.

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