Social media use is changing the experience of socialisation for children and young people (Ranzini and Hoek, 2017) and children are heavy adopters of these digital spaces (Ofcom, 2018; Pescott, 2020). Digital technology and social media add new dimensions that children must navigate, and consequently social media has altered the notions of space, community and identity and the relationships between them (Thomson et al., 2018). For tweens (8 – 12-year olds) on the cusp of adolescence, the presentation of a ‘digital identity’ involves the construction of “of-the-moment” identities made up of visual images and words and is often their first step in terms of gender, culture and social positioning (Bourdieu, 1991). Findings from a PhD pilot study with 10- and 11-year olds in four primary schools in the South Wales area utilising focus groups and activities about social media indicated that social media use is more prevalent among this group than previously thought (Ofcom, 2018). Also, children demonstrated a sense of agency and were aware of keeping their settings private, using ‘ghost mode’ to turn off the location and only being friends with people they know, which concurred with other findings (Jaynes, 2019). Children were also aware of overt dangers such as catfishing and the dangers of paedophiles which also resonates with other research (McDool et al., 2016). Girls were less aware of emotional repercussions surrounding the use of Snapchat filters and viewing idealised profiles on social media feeds which is concurrent with Burnette et al., (2017) findings. Consequently, the results of this study have formed the rationale and research questions of the main study of my PhD.

Aim: To use an exploratory approach to investigate children’s experiences of social media and how they make meaning of their subjectivities.

Secondary aim: To use creative, participatory methods as a way of capturing children’s views and insight into their experiences of social media use.

RQ1: In what ways are children's identities shaped/formed by their experiences of social media?

RQ2: What influence do gender stereotypes have on children when using social media and how does this affect how they feel about themselves?

RQ3: To what extent do children feel the pressure of social media spaces and how do they negotiate these experiences?

RQ4: What kinds of knowledge and support do children think others their age need to promote wellbeing when using social media?

A theoretical framework that positions children as the experts in their own lives (James and James, 2004 ) and as active participants, capable of decision-making and able to present their own reality in an authentic way that has real meaning to them (Dockett et al., 2012) is held central to this research. The theoretical lens of Goffman’s (1959) Impression Management was employed to this research, with the assumption that that individuals strive to control or guide the impression of how others perceive them with how they present their appearance, attitude and manner depending on the audience that they encounter. Through these social interactions with others as an audience could consequently be viewed as the building blocks of our identity formation and how our beliefs, values, subjectivities and behaviours are shaped. Goffman’s (1971) dramaturgical approach utilises the metaphor of the stage to illustrate differences between situations where self-presentation is salient and those that are less pronounced, individuals like stage performers have both a backstage (private identity) and a front stage identity (the public self). This distinction may not be as apparent on social media though as profile pages of social media networks are artefacts that exist to position the creator in relation to the reader/audience and this may be carefully curated.

This research utilises a constructivist ontology with the view that reality is neither objective nor singular and instead the notion that multiple realities are created by individuals (Arthur et al., 2012) and therefore tweens experience social media subjectively. An interpretivist epistemology was employed with the premise that individuals are each situated within a personal, societal and cultural construct and their subjective experience of childhood is changing due to the pervasive nature of social media (Thomson et al., 2018). Four primary schools in the South Wales area were recruited for the research with varying demographics of both a higher and a lower socio-economic bias based on their intake indicated by Free School Meal status. Eight focus groups were conducted in total, two in each setting, N = 40 (participants were between 10 and 11 years old) self-nominated children, 20 males and 20 females. Focus groups were conducted with various activities e.g. looking at faux profiles and posts, Snapchat filters, emojis and advertisements. The same questions were asked but lines of enquiry were pursued by the researcher. This method can reveal attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and feelings of participants and can help facilitate a holistic picture of children’s culture and language; a consensual view with rich responses (O’Reilly et al., 2013). Following the focus groups, 16 children were selected with the help of the teacher, these were also children who were vocal and some who were reticent in the focus group discussions. Collaging with an informal interview was conducted as a means of engaging with the children in a creative, participatory way. In this visual method, participants are invited to create a visual representation using college-making materials such as coloured beads, ribbon, sequins, balloons, tissue paper and feathers for example (Roberts and Woods, 2018). The collection of images requires thought over an extended period and allows the participant to slow down and connect with their own life (Mannay, 2016). Also, using this method, authenticity is high as it can facilitate an honest and accurate reflection (Grant, 2019). Roberts and Woods (2018) indicate that collage has the capacity to act as a means to help conceptualise ideas and can represent subtleties of experiences and profound feelings and understandings and can act as ‘tin openers’ for talk, this was especially apparent to capture children’s subjectivities. The children were asked to think about their identity and how they see themselves on social media and real life.

The focus groups were thematically analysed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phase model and allowed for an iterative and reflexive approach. Initial codes became emerging themes which evolved as the process progressed. The visual methods were analysed using Drew and Guillemin (2014) framework of ‘interpretive engagement’ which involved looking at visual data from both a participant and researcher driven engagement agenda before recontextualising to seek interpretation. Questions in response to the visual data were drawn from Banks (2008) internal and external narrative and drew upon analytic questions suggested by Grbich (2012) and Rose (2012). Some themes were similar to those in the focus groups, but other themes emerged that were more closely linked with identity portrayal in the visual methods. Master themes that emerged were negotiating the digital space which included the sub themes of communication, interaction, relationships, playfulness and ludic/fun which demonstrated subjective experience of social media space with some positive connotations, demonstrating the changing nature of childhood and how everyday parenting and schooling thus plays an integral part in shaping discourse surrounding technology and social media use (Thomson and Berriman, 2018). The second master theme was presentation of self with the sub themes impression management, self-expression, celebrity influence, fakeness, egotistical validation and manipulation of images in relation to societal norms. This theme exemplified how Goffman’s (1959) perceived audience resonated in a digital space and influenced how children saw themselves and perceived others. The final master theme was surveillance with the sub themes dangers, online safety, being controlled, agency and omnipresent ‘other’. Links to Deleuze’s (1992) ‘societies of control’ were apparent in both an overt and covert capacity and taken away the freedom to choose not to express oneself. Overall, children need more explicit teaching about the emotional repercussions of using social media.

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