In teacher education, the problem-solving prior to instruction approach with its demonstrably positive effect on learning has been little researched. One format of this approach is invention activities, which can be divided into two phases. In the first phase, learners are asked to develop a solution by comparing contrasting cases on a topic that is unfamiliar to them. In the second phase, learners receive instruction with the presentation of the canonical solution in the topic that is new to them (Loibl et al., 2017). Another format of this approach represents working with worked solutions: Learners do not have to develop a solution but are given a solution to the task alongside contrasting cases. Studies that compare the problem-solving prior to instruction approach with direct instruction show that the novel formats particularly promoted the acquisition of conceptual knowledge, whereas direct instruction formats tended to promote procedural knowledge (Loibl et al., 2017). Similarly, tasks of this format are considered as an useful preparation for learning (Schwartz & Martin, 2004): learners develop epistemic curiosity and situational interest regarding the topic to be learned (Glogger-Frey et al., 2015). Some researchers find this format of instruction problematic due to learners being overwhelmed by the task prior to instruction and thus experience a high extraneous cognitive load that impedes the actual learning (Kirschner et al., 2006). Therefore, task formats such as working with a worked solution are used to provide additional support to learners.

Studies that compared the worked solution format with invention activities show that the worked solution results in a lower extraneous cognitive load as well as higher learning outcome for learners (Glogger-Frey et al., 2015). The goal of the implementation of this approach within this research project is to support student teachers’ professional vision of classroom management. Classroom management belongs to the main requirements of teacher quality (Pianta & Hamre, 2009). The professional vision of classroom management describes the ability to identify indicators of classroom management and to interpret them in a theory-based manner. It can be understood as a knowledge-based process; to make use of the professional vision teachers need professional knowledge (Sherin, 2007). Some studies already imply that expert teachers show a higher competence in professional vision than novice teachers: Novices have greater difficulties describing and interpreting classroom situations adequately - experts are more successful at this (Wolff et al., 2015). It also showed that experts were more likely to focus on situations relevant to learning, whereas novices were more likely to focus on student behavior (Wolff et al., 2015). The results of this selected study show that there is a need to foster novices’ professional vision of classroom management early in their teacher education program so that novices develop and enhance their professional vision as early as possible. This present study investigates if the problem-solving prior to instruction approach fosters the professional vision of classroom management and whether the invention activities or the worked solution format has a greater impact of the student teachers’ professional vision of classroom management and which one of the two learning formats enhances the learning process.

The following hypotheses derive from the above question: 1. Assessing the professional vision of classroom management, the worked solution leads to a higher learning outcome than the invention activity. 2. Students who have worked on the invention activity are more curious about classroom management after working on the task than students who have worked on the worked solution. 3. Students who have worked on the worked solution feel less extraneous cognitive load after completing the task than students who have worked on the invention activity. In order to answer the research questions, this experimental study was conducted in a pre-post design in a lecture, accompanied by 15 tutorials, in the field of educational sciences of the first year of a teacher training program. All students were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions: invention activitiy (IA) or worked solution (WS). To measure the professional vision of classroom management, a video-based online test was used. In this online test, three dimensions of classroom management are included: monitoring, managing momentum, and establishing rules and routines. The online test includes four video clips that are designed to be evaluated by students regarding classroom management using open and closed items (Gold & Holodynski, 2017). The collected data on the professional vision of classroom management will be used as the dependent variable. The task (IA or WS) is completed in the tutorials within 45 minutes. Therefore, all students listen to two podcasts first which serve as the contrasting cases in a digital learning unit. In the first podcast, participants listen to excerpts of a less successful school lesson regarding classroom management; the second podcast provided is a successful example of the same lesson. After listening to the two podcasts, students are asked to briefly summarize both podcasts and rate the quality of the teacher's classroom management. The difference between the tasks is the mode of comparison: while the IA group is asked to develop characteristics of classroom management according to the podcasts, the WS group compares the podcasts using given criteria. After task completion, a digital questionnaire is used to assess the extraneous cognitive load (Leppink et al., 2013) and perceived epistemic curiosity (Naylor, 1981). ANOVAs will be used to show how the two experimental groups differ regarding professional vision of classroom management, epistemic curiosity, and extraneous cognitive load.

In our preliminary studies, we already found evidence that this teaching-learning format prompted the epistemic curiosity of both experimental groups immediately after completing the tasks. The extraneous cognitive load in both groups was found to be rather low. Contrary to other studies, the learning outcome, the professional vision of classroom management, did not differ between the two experimental groups. Now that the research design was adapted based on these results in line with the design-based-research approach, it is expected that the WS experimental group will achieve higher scores regarding the professional vision of classroom management and that this group will experience less extraneous cognitive load than the IA. Only the experienced curiosity is assumed to be higher in the experimental group of the IA after the task completion. With this contribution, we will introduce a significant facet of teacher expertise and aim to show how knowledge about effective classroom management strategies as well as the professional vision of classroom management can be fostered, especially among first-year students. Classroom management is a major topic in teacher education: The positive influence of classroom management on students' learning and motivational outcomes as a condition for good teaching has been repeatedly confirmed in meta-analyses and individual studies (Seidel & Shavelson, 2007; Wang et al., 1993). This proves that classroom management is a mandatory requirement for teaching quality and has to be integrated as a significant element in the first year of teacher’s education.

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