In the field of education, different theoretical perspectives on migration-related diversity in schools have been formulated. A rough distinction has been made between multiculturalism and “color-evasiveness” (e.g. Civitillo et al., 2019; Hachfeld et al., 2015; Plaut, Thomas, Hurd, & Romano, 2018; Rosenthal & Levy, 2010). We argue that “inclusion” should be added as a third perspective. Multiculturalism emphasizes equal value of different groups and the importance of tolerance for differences (e.g., Park & Judd, 2005; Taylor, 1992). In the context of teaching students with migration background it suggests fostering mutual understanding between immigrant students and their classmates as well as adapting the own behaviours to the needs of immigrant students, who are assumed to have a culture that is different from that of non-immigrant students (Hachfeld et al., 2015). The “color-evasive” approach instead suggests focusing on sameness, equality and individuality (e.g. Schofield, 2007). In this perspective, treating individuals as members of social groups (e.g. immigrants) should be avoided (Hahn, Banchefsky, Park, & Judd, 2015). Hachfeld et al. (2015) argued that “color-evasiveness” in the context of teaching students with migration background implies treating them equal to their classmates and downplaying differences. In contrast, in inclusive education differences are not downplayed. They are recognized. Yet, the use of binary categories (e.g., immigrant/non-immigrant) in the construction of these differences is avoided. The inclusion-perspective further acknowledges tensions between the aims of responding to individual needs and the risk of ascribing a difference that can be potentially stigmatizing by treating someone different from the others (Norwich, 2008). Moreover, inclusion implies minimizing barriers to learning and barriers to participation for all students as well as reducing discrimination (e.g., Booth & Ainscow, 2002).

Teachers are likely to have come into contact with these discourses, but they may differ in the depth of their understanding as well as in their agreement/disagreement with them (see e.g. Hachfeld & Syring, 2020). Differences in teachers’ beliefs and orientations have been associated with differences in classroom teaching practices: Teachers who agree more with the idea of multiculturalism, also show more enthusiasm for teaching immigrant students, are more willing to adapt their teaching to a culturally diverse student body, and use more culturally responsive teaching strategies as compared to teachers who agree less with multiculturalism. In contrast, such associations were not observed for “color-evasiveness” (e.g. Civitillo et al., 2019; Hachfeld et al., 2015).

Building on this research, the present paper aims at linking teachers’ orientations toward migration-related diversity with students’ experiences in schools – more specifically, with their perception of being recognized by their teachers and with student-reported incidences of misrecognition in the classroom. It draws on Honneth’s (1995) normative recognition theory. Honneth refers to recognition as a form of acknowledgement or respect for another being and describes three different modi: emotional support, equal rights and social esteem. Experiencing recognition in these modi is considered crucial for identity development. Yet, not all students are recognized by their teachers in a similar way. Some even experience serious incidences of misrecognition in schools (e.g., Prengel, 2013). In particular, minority students appear to be at risk for experiencing misrecognition (e.g., Vieluf & Sauerwein, 2018). Because valuing and respecting all students is at the core of multiculturalism as well as “color-evasiveness” and inclusion, but in different ways, we aim at examining to which extent classroom processes live up to the ideals teachers endorse by asking students about their experiences in the classroom.

The research reported is a part of the “Erasmus+”-project HAND in HAND: Social and Emotional Skills for Tolerant and Non-discriminative Societies (A Whole School Approach). In September 2018, teachers completed a questionnaire including a vignette and students at the same schools completed a questionnaire including questions on their experience of recognition in schools. Participants The sample consisted of 816 8th grade students (around 13/14 years old) in 36 classes and 321 teachers, who teach these students, in three European school systems (12 schools in Croatia, Slovenia, and Sweden respectively). The Vignette The vignette used for the present research was based on a situational judgement test developed by Schwarzenthal et al. (2019). Teachers were asked to imagine the following scenario: “A student who has just immigrated to is new to a class you are teaching. You notice that he is always sitting in a corner on his own during school break times. He is sometimes late for lessons and usually has not done his homework. Some classmates sometimes give him funny looks but they do not talk to him.” The scenario was followed by the open question: “What would you do if you were observing this situation?” Questions about students’ perception of recognition Students’ experience of recognition from teachers was assessed with 8 items, e.g., “My teachers take me serious“. Students indicated on a 4-point Likert-scale to how many of their teachers the statements applied. Students’ experience of misrecognition from teachers was further assessed with 7 items, e.g., “A teacher said something insulting to me in front of others”. Students were asked how often this had happened during the past 4 months in school. Both questions were adapted from PISA 2015 and the German StEG-study. The Cronbach´s alpha´s for different language versions for these scales ranged from .77 to .93. Analysis The vignette was analysed with qualitative content analysis (e.g., Kuckarts, 2018). First, all three coders sifted the material. Second, a category system was developed inductively. Third, the category system was applied by at least two trained coders to every teacher’s response (therein, one response could get more than one code). Consequently, the frequencies of each code was counted per class. These frequencies were correlated at the class level with class-mean values for the three recognition scales students had filled out.

In response to the vignette, teachers suggested different strategies for supporting the new student: All teachers wrote that they would try to help the student. However, 16% of the teachers did not specify how. 10% of the teachers suggested talking about the heritage culture of the immigrant in order to encourage the classmates to show understanding and tolerance. These responses are most in accordance with a multicultural perspective. 3% of the teachers suggested addressing an ascribed deficit of the new student, such as a lack of knowledge of the school rules. 56% of the teachers suggested an intervention that aimed at increasing mutual understanding in a way that exposes the new student as being particularly in need (e.g., generating understanding for the difficulties of being new in a school or finding a mentor among the classmates). These responses might be considered as being indicative of a “color-evasive” approach. In contrast, 12% of the teachers suggested an intervention that addresses the whole class in a similar way without making any distinction between the new student and his classmates (e.g. using cooperative learning or social games to improve the classroom climate). The latter, most inclusive, type of orientation was related to fewer negative experiences of students with their teachers: In schools where more teachers suggested a strategy to improve the situation described in the vignette through an intervention that addressed the whole class, students reported fewer incidences of misrecognition experienced from teachers (ryx = .46**). This suggests that the ideal to value and respect all students, which is inherent in different theoretical ideas on how to best address diversity in schools, might best be achieved through an inclusive approach that aims at addressing individual needs, but, at the same time, tries to avoid exposing students as being different.

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