Having high levels of occupational self-efficacy is highly relevant in work contexts. The occupational self-efficacy of newcomers in vocational education and training (VET) predicts their risk of dropping out of VET and their likelihood of completing upper secondary education (Samuel & Burger, 2020). Little research has been done on occupational self-efficacy for newcomers in gender-nontraditional professions. In gender-nontraditional professions, either female or male employees are in a minority by gender (Flores et al., 2006). The assumption is that newcomers in gender-nontraditional professions report lower occupational self-efficacy because they are confronted with a new environment and new tasks. This effect is assumed to be stronger for female employees who choose male-dominated professions, because they receive less support than males in female dominated professions (Taylor, 2010). Supportive behavior helps to inform one’s self-efficacy (Lent et al., 2008). In VET, supervisors are a vital source for support (Neuenschwander & Hofmann, 2021). However, there is little knowledge about the role of supervisors’ feedback for the impact of newcomers’ choice of gender-nontraditional professions on their occupational self-efficacy. Thus, we examined the following questions: 1) Does newcomers’ choice of gender-nontraditional professions affect their occupational self-efficacy due to low levels of perceived supervisors’ support? 2) Does gender moderate the indirect effect of newcomers’ choice of gender-nontraditional professions on occupational self-efficacy via perceived supervisors’ support?

The present study builds on (a) the social cognitive career theory (SCCT) of work satisfaction (Lent & Brown, 2008), that was complemented by (b) Kanter’s (1977) tokenism theory. The SCCT of work satisfaction assumes that occupational self-efficacy partially depends on personality traits and efficacy-relevant environmental supports (e.g., constructive feedback). Newcomers in gender nontraditional professions receive constructive feedback less frequently than others. This assumption is based on the tokenism theory (Kanter, 1977). Newcomers in gender nontraditional professions are in a gender minority in their chosen profession, and they are labeled tokens. Tokens have a high visibility (Kanter, 1977), and therefore, their mistakes are easily observable (Kanter, 1977). Additionally, to avoid negative consequences, tokens may proactively keep a low profile regarding their work accomplishments. Thus, tokens are less likely to receive positive and constructive feedback from their supervisors. In the present study, we tested the assumption that newcomers’ choice of gender-nontraditional professions has a negative effect on their perception of supervisors’ feedback, which in turn positively affects their occupational self-efficacy, moderated by gender.

In line with the SCCT of work satisfaction, occupational self-efficacy is influenced by personality traits such as conscientiousness, which also has a positive indirect effect on occupational self-efficacy via supervisors’ feedback (Lent & Brown, 2008). Therefore, in the present study we controlled for the effects of newcomers’ conscientiousness on their perceived frequency of supervisors’ feedback and their occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience.

The SCCT of work satisfaction assumes that outcome expectations such as positive expectations of work conditions are associated with occupational self-efficacy: Anticipated positive work conditions promote efforts to achieve one’s work goals and thereby positively impact occupational self-efficacy (Lent & Brown, 2008). Additionally, a longitudinal study has shown that newcomers’ occupational self-efficacy before transition to VET highly and positively correlates with occupational self-efficacy after transition to VET (Neuenschwander & Hofmann, 2021). Thus, in the present study we controlled for the effects of newcomers’ pre-entry occupational self-efficacy and expectations of work conditions on occupational self-efficacy after 1 year in VET.

The analytical model was examined for Swiss adolescents who moved from compulsory school to dual vocational education and training (dual VET).

We tested the analytical model using data from the study “Effects of Tracking”. We used data from Wave 4, completed in 2015, when adolescents were in their last year of compulsory school (Time 1 T1 female: n = 1,258, male: n = 1,105), and Wave 5, completed in 2016, when adolescents were in their first year of post-compulsory education (Time 2 T2 female: n = 490, male: n = 318). The T2 sample consisted of T1 participants exclusively, and the response rate was 34% (female: 39%, male: 29%). To test our model, we selected those adolescents who chose to enter dual VET after compulsory school. Of those adolescents, 396 participated in T1 and T2; 873 adolescents only participated in T1. We tested for missing response patterns between those who participated in both T1 and T2 and those who only participated in T1 for all T1 items we used in the study. No response biases emerged. Instruments We applied the corresponding International Standard Classification of Occupations-08 code (International Labour Organization, 2012) to adolescents’ apprenticeship profession. Based on this code, for female adolescents, we used the percentage of male employees in the profession; for male adolescents, we used the percentage of female employees in the profession. Positive Expectations of Work Conditions was measured with seven items (e.g., “When you have a job, you will be treated fairly by your boss”; Porfeli et al., 2012; α = .87). Pre-entry Occupational Self-Efficacy was assessed with six items (e.g., Whatever comes my way in my job, I will be able to handle it.” Rigotti et al., 2008; α = .88;). Occupational Self-Efficacy After 1 Year of Work Experience was assessed with six items (e.g., “Whatever comes my way in my job, I am able to handle it” Rigotti et al., 2008; , α = .82). Frequency of Supervisors’ Feedback was measured with four items (e.g., “How often did people in your company tell you their opinion on your learning progress during the past four weeks?”; Ashford & Black, 1996, α = .85 to α = .89). Conscientiousness was assessed with six items (e.g., “I keep my things neat and clean, Körner et al., 2008; α = .82; to .84). Analytical Procedure We examined the analytical model using a structural equation model (SEM) with multigroup comparison between genders in Mplus 8.1 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017). We tested for configural, longitudinal and between-groups metric invariance.

Findings indicated measurement invariance for all constructs between groups and time points. The SEM did not differ between gender. The SEM without multigroup comparison between genders fitted to the data, χ2(332, N = 1269) = 591.01, p < .001, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .03, SRMR = .09. The gender nontraditionality of the apprenticeship profession had a significant negative effect on the frequency of supervisors’ feedback. The frequency of supervisors’ feedback had a significant positive effect on occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience. The gender nontraditionality of the apprenticeship profession had a significant negative indirect effect on occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience via the frequency of supervisors’ feedback. The frequency of supervisors’ feedback fully mediated the effect of the gender nontraditionality of the apprenticeship profession on occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience. Pre-entry occupational self-efficacy had a significant positive effect on occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience. Positive expectations of work conditions did not significantly predict occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience. Conscientiousness had a significant positive effect on occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience and on frequency of supervisors’ feedback. Adolescents in gender-nontraditional apprenticeship professions perceived low frequency in supervisors’ feedback, which led to low ratings of occupational self-efficacy after 1 year of work experience. These findings help to explain the evidence of previous research that individuals in gender-nontraditional professions quit their jobs after a short time (Simpson, 2005). Promoting newcomers’ pre-entry occupational self-efficacy could help diminishing negative consequences related to choosing a gender-nontraditional profession. These findings were found for the dual VET system which is a dominant track in upper secondary education in Switzerland. Researchers should investigate if these findings can also be found for vocational schools, the dominant VET system in most European countries.

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