In Germany as in Europe as well, the linguistic and cultural diversity among student populations increases, for example due to globalization and transnational mobility (Tanase, 2020; Wernicke et al., 2021). Therefore, teachers need to teach linguistically and culturally responsive to assure pupils access to content, to encourage them to develop literacy skills and to offer language development support (Lucas & Villegas, 2011). However, relevant opportunities to learn in teacher education are very divers so far and not empirically evaluated concerning their effectiveness for learning. We developed a test instrument to measure (pre-service) teachers’ competence in linguistically responsive teaching (LRT) performance-oriented. The goal of the study is to identify opportunities to learn that are relevant in linguistically responsive teaching. We also surveyed academic and individual characteristics and beliefs to identify correlative relationships between these factors and teachers’ competence.

Linguistically responsive teaching (Lucas & Villegas, 2013) is a framework that outlines types of pedagogical knowledge and skills teachers need to support culturally and linguistically diverse students in the mainstream classroom(Lucas & Villegas, 2013). The theoretical DaZKom model was developed based on this framework of Lucas and Villegas (2011) (Hammer & Berkel-Otto, 2019) as well as on an  analysis  of  60 German university  curricula  in  the  field  of  German  as  second  language  and  second  language  acquisition (Ehmke et al., 2018; Köker et al., 2015). As a result, three main dimensions (with subdimensions and facets) in the field of German as a second language (GSL) were identified: subject-specific registers, multilingualism, and didactics (Ohm, 2018). The term German as a second language (GSL) originates in studies on German as a second or foreign language (Berkel-Otto et al., 2021). Meanwhile, we know that linguistically responsive teaching is substantial for all students, especially in regard to academic language at school (Köker, 2018; Lucas & Villegas, 2013; Schleppegrell, 2009). As we refer to teachers’ competence in teaching their subject content in a way that also takes linguistic aspects into account, as all students should have access to learning content, regardless of their language skills (Carlson & Präg, 2018) and both constructs (GSL and LRT) have a high level of conceptual overlap, we refer to LRT-competence in the following, because it encompasses a much broader framework of language support.

To assess teachers’ LRT competence and their opportunities to learn, we developed a performance-oriented test instrument. The aim is to focus on the assessment of performance rather than to measure declarative knowledge, and therefore demand spontaneous decisions for action. We follow the concept competence as a continuum (Blömeke, Gustafsson, & Shavelson, 2015). It refers to the idea that situation specific skills such as perception and decision-making serve as mediators between personal dispositions and performance, while performance is observable behavior that gives information about the competence of a person (Blömeke, Gustafsson, & Shavelson, 2015).  To capture the situation specific skills as indicators for performance, we used video vignettes in our test that showed LRT-relevant teaching situations, because video vignettes illustrate the complexity of teaching more appropriately than paper pencil formats (Blömeke, König, et al., 2015; Casale et al., 2016). Each vignette is followed by two items that are based on the situation specific skills perception and decision-making.

Research Questions

1. Is there a correlation between the LRT-competence, individual and academic characteristics and the use of LRT-relevant opportunities to learn?
2. Which relationship can be identified between beliefs of participants concerning multilingualism in school and teaching and the LRT-test results?

The performance-oriented measurement of LRT competence was conducted with a video-based test instrument, called LRT test with video vignettes, each one to three minutes long. Referring to the presented theoretical background, the two corresponding items to each vignette are based on the situation-specific skills perception and decision-making (Blömeke et. al, 2015). Therefore, the test persons are asked to respond to the following two questions after every vignette: 1) What do you perceive? 2) How would you act if you were in this situation? The LRT test contains 24 items and has a reliability of α=0.76. The responses of the test subjects were given orally, were recorded and then coded according to a coding manual (0=false, 1=unspecific elements of LRT, 2=specific LRT-aspects, 3=situation-specific LRT relevant). The coding manual provides specific indications for every vignette. Additionally, the test contains a multiple-choice-questionnaire to survey individual and academic characteristics personality factors, beliefs about multilingualism in school (Fischer, Hammer, & Ehmke, 2018) and LRT relevant opportunities to learn. The test was carried out in a computer-based setting on tablet computers (in the App Limesurvey) with headsets. The duration of the test was approximately 60 minutes. The data collection took place between April and July 2019 at 16 different locations across Germany. The sample (N=289) includes pre- and in-service teachers and was therefore carried out at universities (different LRT-relevant courses in university teacher training), in schools (in-service teachers) and in further teacher training courses for in-service teachers.

The results concerning bivariate correlations of participants’ LRT competence with individual and academic characteristics and opportunities to learn show that female respondents achieve statistically significantly higher results (r = .641) as well as participants with LRT teaching experience (r = .122). The results of the latent regression analysis confirm these results. Also, participant who study or teach English as a subject score higher in the LRT test. Reasons can be higher communicative and intercultural competences, higher language awareness and awareness of linguistically diverse classrooms. Regarding the beliefs, two scales were evaluated in the analysis: Multilingualism in Content Classroom and Responsibility for Language Support in Content Classrooms. Positive beliefs towards multilingualism in subject teaching (r=0.21**) as well as positive beliefs concerning the responsibility for language support (r=0.25**) correlate highly with the measured LRT competence. Research on beliefs assume a direct connection between beliefs and action/performance (Ricart Brede, 2019). Regarding opportunities to learn, the item “support of the language learning process through scaffolding” showed significant correlations with LRT-competence. Scaffolding is a concrete strategy for organizing the learning process in a lesson and combines many facets of LRT- competence (Gibbons, 2002). Hence, participants who know about scaffolding, may have an overall and practical idea of what LRT involves. The results lead to the following implications for teacher education: videos are a chance for future teachers to develop professional knowledge, professional vision and therefore as well competent performance (Gaudin & Chaliès, 2015). A greater focus on teachers’ beliefs and their development is needed and enough space for reflecting on experiences (Ricart Brede, 2019). Further research is required on LRT relevant opportunities to learn: How do opportunities to learn need to be designed to foster LRT competence of (future) teachers?

Blömeke, S., Gustafsson, J.‑E., & Shavelson, R. J. (2015). Beyond Dichotomies. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie, 223(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000194 Ehmke, T., Hammer, S., Köker, A., Ohm, U., & Koch-Priewe, B. (Eds.). (2018). Professionelle Kompetenzen angehender Lehrkräfte im Bereich Deutsch als Zweitsprache. Waxmann. Gaudin, C., & Chaliès, S. (2015). Video viewing in teacher education and professional development: A literature review. Educational Research Review, 16, 41–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.06.001 Casale, G., Strauß, S., Hennemann, T., & König, J. (2016). Wie lässt sich Klassenführungsexpertise messen? Überprüfung eines videobasierten Erhebungsinstruments für Lehrkräfte unter Anwendung der Generalisierbarkeitstheorie. Empirische Sonderpädagogik(2), 119–139. Lucas, T., & Villegas, A. M. (2013). Preparing Linguistically Responsive Teachers: Laying the Foundation in Preservice Teacher Education. Theory into Practice, 52(2), 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2013.770327 Ohm, U. (2018). Das Modell von DaZ-Kompetenz bei angehenden Lehrkräften. In T. Ehmke, S. Hammer, A. Köker, U. Ohm, & B. Koch-Priewe (Eds.), Professionelle Kompetenzen angehender Lehrkräfte im Bereich Deutsch als Zweitsprache (pp. 73–91). Waxmann. Ricart Brede, J. (2019). Einstellungen – beliefs – Überzeugungen – Orientierungen: Zum theoretischen Konstrukt des Projektes „Einstellungen angehender LehrerInnen zu Deutsch als Zweitsprache in Ausbildung und Unterricht“. In D. Maak & J. Ricart Brede (Eds.), Mehrsprachigkeit: Band 46. Wissen, Können, Wollen - sollen?! (angehende) LehrerInnen und äußere Mehrsprachigkeit (pp. 29–38). Waxmann. Schleppegrell, M. J. (2009). Language in academic subject areas and classroom instruction: what is academic language and how can we teach it? Riverside County Office Of Education (RCOE). https://www.rcoe.us/educational-services/files/2012/08/What_is_Academic_Language_Schleppegrell.pdf Wernicke, Meike; Hammer, Svenja; Hansen, Antje; Schroedler, Tobias (Hg.) (2021): Preparing Teachers to Work with Multilingual Learners: Multilingual Matters.