Objectives

Teacher agency is a rather abstract concept, and it has been extensively theorized (e.g. Aiello & Sibilio, 2018; Eteläpelto, 2013; Priestley et al., 2015a; 2015b), yet its practical unfolding in an actual inclusive school setting remains largely unexplored. Recent literature reviews on teacher agency for inclusive education have shed light on the phenomenon (Miller et al., 2020; Li & Rupper, 2020; Andreoli et al, 2022). However, a comprehensive empirically based theorization is still lacking. The purpose of this study is to explore teacher agency for inclusive education at work, by collecting and analyzing teachers' experiences and perspectives. To this end, we have tried to respond to the following research questions: 1) How does teacher agency for inclusive education unfold in inclusive school settings? 2) How can teachers “make a difference” and contribute to more equitable opportunities for all students? 3) What strategies are employed in this process? 4) Is teacher agency enacted differently by general and special education teachers?  

Theoretical Framework 

According to Pantić (2015; 2017a), Pantić and Florian (2015) teacher agency is a transformative process aimed at fostering social justice in schools, which are more and more characterized by increasing cultural and social diversity. When enacting teacher agency, teachers act strategically, removing the risks of school failure and social marginalization, promoting academic achievements, and ensuring better opportunities for all students (Pantić, 2015).  

School systems and teachers as change-makers are mutually constituted, meaning that teachers act not only in but also through a particular school context. As Biesta and Tedder (2007) put it, “the achievement of agency will always result from the interplay of individual efforts, available resources, and contextual and structural ‘factors’ as they come together in particular and, in a sense, always unique situations” (pp.137). In this vein, several environmental elements have emerged in the literature as relevant factors impacting teacher agency for inclusive education. Pantić (2017b) notes that teacher agency is influenced at the micro level by personal factors, i.e., teacher attitudes and beliefs, at the meso level by school/context-specific ideologies and practices, and at the macro level by educational policies, curriculum, etc. The most critical factors lie at the meso level and concern relationships and cooperation among different school actors. They are, nonetheless, also more "malleable" and unlike structural elements, they can be modified by new practices. Other factors facilitating or hampering teacher agency for inclusive education have been mapped in three different literature reviews (Miller et al., 2020; Li & Rupper, 2020; Andreoli et al, 2022).  Barriers include the absence of structural resources, the dominant ableist culture, the perceived inadequacy in the relationship with the students with disability, the special education teacher's unpreparedness on specific learning contents, the marginalization of the special education teacher, the absence of shared planning, and the lack of school administration support. On the other hand, teachers proved they can change existing practices thanks to resilience, teamwork, and student-centered ideologies (Andreoli et al., 2022). Yet, how do they do that?  What actions do they take? What happens when teachers make a change and make enhanced educational opportunities for all students possible? Miller et al. (2020) and Li & Rupper (2020) argue that for a better understanding of the phenomenon, researchers should identify specific “actions” informing teacher agency. Building on these premises, we collected a large body of empirical data to gain practical knowledge on transformative actions and agency-driven outcomes in existing inclusive school settings. 

Data Sources This paper draws from 614 responses to the following open-ended question: Do you feel you have ever made a difference in inclusive school settings? Can you recall one or more episodes? This question was included in an online questionnaire administered via Google Forms, as part of the “Special Education Teacher Agency Project” carried out by the University of Verona (Italy). After receiving ethical approval from the Ethics Committee of the University of Verona, an invitation was sent to 6000 Italian teachers and 614 participated in the study. The sample includes 124 in-service general education teachers and 490 special education teachers working in inclusive settings. Participants vary according to the school level, years of experience, subject area, and certifications. Data Analysis The framework method (Gale et al., 2013) was utilized to analyze the dataset. This allowed for thematic analyses of teachers’ experiences about change-making for inclusive education. Researchers identified and compared descriptive labels, developed working themes, and then grouped and organized the themes into a matrix. The process was reiterated until a consensus was reached. The matrix design is conceived in a way to respond to the research questions and to capture the practical unfolding of teacher agency for inclusive education as a phenomenon.

614 Italian teachers responded to the question. Framework analyses allowed for the identification of four inter-related categories: enabling conditions, strategies, outcomes, and levels. Enabling conditions refer to contextual and personal factors that place teachers in a better position for taking impactful actions that enhance inclusive education. Outcomes refer to accomplishments achieved by teachers with their students and actual changes produced in the school context. Strategies are actions carried out by teachers that, along with enabling conditions, make changes in school possible. Lastly, levels capture the direction taken by teachers actions when impacting the school, including different school stakeholders inside and outside the school, i.e., school personnel, student population, parents, professionals and the community. These four categories are in relationship with one another, forming a matrix. Thanks to the application of specific strategies and/or by virtue of enabling conditions, teachers produce educational, relational, and context-related outcomes, impacting different subjects’ groups. This matrix provides insights into how teacher agency unfolds in inclusive school settings and it suggests a number of strategies employed by teacher when enacting teacher agency for inclusive education.

Andreoli, M., Zaniboni, L., Ghirotto, L., & Lascioli, A. (2022). A Scoping Review on Teacher Agency for Inclusive Education: Mapping Existing Evidence and Conceptual Frameworks, Form@are, 22(3), 9-29. https://doi.org/10.36253/form-13288 Biesta, G., & Tedder, M. (2007). Agency and learning in the lifecourse: towards an ecological perspective. Studies in the Education of Adults, 39(2), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/02660830.2007.11661545. Eteläpelto, A., Vähäsantanen, K., Hökkä, P., & Paloniemi, S. (2013). What is agency? Conceptualizing professional agency at work. Educational Research Review, 10, 45–65. Gale, N.K., Heath, G., Cameron, E. et al. (2013). Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research. BMC Med Res Methodol 13, 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-13-117 Li, L., & Ruppar, A. (2020). Conceptualizing teacher agency for inclusive education: a systematic and international review. Teacher Education and Special Education, 44(1), 42–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406420926976. Miller, A. L., Wilt, C. L., Allcock, H. C., Kurth, J. A., Morningstar, M. E., & Ruppar, A. L. (2020). Teacher agency for inclusive education: an international scoping review. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2020.1789766. OECD (2005). Teachers matter: attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. OECD: Paris. Pantić, N. (2015). A model for study of teacher agency for social justice. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 21(6), 759–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2015.1044332. Pantic, N. (2017a). An exploratory study of teacher agency for social justice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 219–230. Pantić, N. (2017b). Reconciling rigour and impact by collaborative research design: study of teacher agency. International Journal of Research and Method in Education, 40(4), 329–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727X.2015.1113250. Pantić, N., & Florian, L. (2015). Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and social justice. Education Inquiry, 6(3), 333-351. https://doi.org/10.3402/edui.v6.27311. Priestley, M., Biesta, G., & Robinson, S. (2015a). Teacher Agency: an ecological approach. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Priestley, M., Biesta, G., & Robinson, S. (2015b). Teacher agency: what is it and why does it matter? In R. Kneyber, & J. Evers (Eds.), Flip the system: changing education from the bottom up. (pp. 134–148). London: Routledge. UN (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. UNESCO (2000). The right education. Towards Education for All throughout life. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO (2005). Guidelines for inclusion: ensuring access to Education for All. Paris: UNESCO.