Introduction

Policies and laws regarding child adoption in some countries have created barriers for gay and lesbian couples in the adoption process (Shelley-Sireci & Ciano-Boyce, 2002). Taiwan was the first country in Asia to legalize same-sex marriage in 2019; yet, the Legislative Yuan has not legalized the adoption of children by same-sex couples. One of the main reasons for the child adoption barrier in Taiwan is that most older adults insist that children adopted by same-sex families oppose the traditional Chinese culture.

According to Herek (2002), older adults express less favorable generic attitudes toward sexual minorities than younger participants. Moreover, being a man, older, and highly religious predicted higher levels of sexual prejudice regarding same-sex parenting (Costa & Salinas-Quiroz, 2018). In addition, people with traditional gender beliefs tend to have more negative attitudes toward same-sex couples (including lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons) and same-sex parenting than people who hold beliefs in equal roles across gender (Jewkes et al., 2015; Webb et al., 2017). Negative beliefs about children raised by same-sex families are commonly characterized by unfounded fears related to children’s development, such as social rejection, homophobic bullying, and confusion about sexual orientation or gender identity (Gato & Fontaine, 2013). Moreover, negative attitudes toward gays and lesbians are one of the significant influences on public disapproval of parenting in same-sex families.

These previous studies on prejudice against gay and lesbian individuals among heterosexual adults or older adults were from the U. S. or other western countries. Comparatively, few empirical studies have been devoted to attitudes toward same-sex parenting within the context of the society in Asian countries. Since Taiwan became the first country in Asia to legalize same-sex marriage in 2019, it is very important to understand the attitude toward same-sex parenting among older Taiwanese adults, the generation most resistant to change (Lee & Lin, 2020). What is the nature of Taiwanese heterosexual older adults’ attitudes toward same-sex parenting? Is there any significant relationship between Taiwanese heterosexual older adults’ background variables and their attitudes toward same-sex parenting? Without answering these questions, the prejudice against same-sex parenting cannot be solved and the goals of social justice for same-sex families cannot be achieved. Therefore, this study seeks to contribute to the limited literature on the effect of gender, age, educational background, gender role beliefs, and attitudes toward gay men and lesbians on attitudes toward same-sex families of Taiwanese heterosexual older adults.

Methods Participants The participants were 352 Taiwanese older adults aged between 56-84 with an average of 66.6. The participants consisted of 87 (24.70%) men and 265 (75.30%) women. All study participants selected “heterosexual” for the “sexual orientation” item at the beginning of the questionnaire. This paper refers to these older adults who self-identified as heterosexual as “Taiwanese heterosexual older adults.” Measures Beliefs in gender roles were measured by the Beliefs in Gender Role scale (adapted from Costa & Davies, 2012) with 10 five-point Likert items. The 10 items were divided into three subscales: traditional beliefs in masculinity, traditional beliefs in femininity, and beliefs in equal roles. The three factors accounted for 59.16% of the total variance for the scale, and the coefficient of internal consistency reliability was .73. Attitudes toward gay and lesbian people were measured by the Attitudes toward Gay scale and the Attitudes toward Lesbian scale which were modified from Morrison and Morrison’ study (2011). Each scale has two subscales: Modern Prejudice toward gay people and Heterosexual Hegemony toward gay people for the gay scale and Modern Prejudice toward lesbian people and Heterosexual Hegemony toward lesbian people for the lesbian scale. The two factors accounted for 65.44% and 67.16% of the total variance for the gay scale and the lesbian scale. The coefficients of internal consistency reliability were .85 and .88 for the gay scale and the lesbian scale, respectively. Attitudes toward same-sex families were measured by the Attitudes toward Gay Family Scale, and Attitudes toward Lesbian Family Scale (adapted from Frias-Navarro & Monterde-i-Bort, 2012). Each scale has two subscales: Opposition of same-sex parenting and opposition of children adjustment. The two factors accounted for 66.77% and 74.04% of the total variance for the gay family scale and the lesbian family scale. The coefficients of internal consistency reliability were .88 and .92 for the gay family scale and the lesbian family scale, respectively. Analytic Strategies A t-test was used to explore the gender difference in gender role beliefs, attitudes toward gays and lesbians, and attitudes toward same-sex families. A Pearson’s product-moment correlation analysis was conducted to investigate the correlation between demographic backgrounds, gender role beliefs, attitudes toward gays and lesbians, and attitudes toward same-sex families. Moreover, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was applied to analyze the direct and indirect effect of predictors and mediators of attitudes toward same-sex families.

Conclusion This study did not find that gender, age, and educational background predicted attitudes toward same-sex families. Both males and females had similar attitudes toward gay and lesbian people, gay and lesbian parenting, and their children’s adjustment, thus indicating that Taiwanese heterosexual adults have similar attitudes toward gay and lesbian families. This finding was in contrast with previous studies that sampled undergraduate students or younger participants were more likely to have different perceptions; males were more negative than their female counterparts. Regarding attitudes toward gay parenting, traditional beliefs in masculinity and femininity factors were not significant, while modern prejudice and heterosexual hegemony toward gay people significantly predicted attitudes toward gay parenting. For children’s adjustment to gay families, participants’ beliefs in equal roles factor were not significant. In contrast, modern prejudice and heterosexual hegemony toward gay attitudes significantly predicted attitudes toward children’s adjustment on gay families. Traditional beliefs in masculinity and femininity factors did not significantly predict attitudes toward lesbian parenting, while modern prejudice and heterosexual hegemony attitudes significantly predicted attitudes toward lesbian parenting. For children’s adjustment to lesbian families, no factors regarding belief in gender roles were significant. Modern prejudice and heterosexual hegemony attitudes significantly predicted attitudes toward children’s adjustment on lesbian families. This study contains several limitations regarding sampling. First, the researchers used a convenience sample. Second, there was a possible effect of social desirability as there always is when data is collected using self-report questionnaires. Third, the research did not consider the relevance of the variables that can counter stress and may help mediate the relationship between gender beliefs and attitudes toward same-sex families. Future studies investigate how homonegativity affects Taiwanese heterosexual older adults and if this correlates with resilience factors, such as personality characteristics and family environments.

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