Traditionally it has been considered that relationship between adolescents and parents is distant because of their search for autonomy, questioning of family and social norms (Sanders, 2013), and the risk behaviors they may adopt, generating stressful situations in the family coexistence (Martínez-González et al., 2007). Current human developmental theories provide a more positive vision of adolescence, emphasizing its potential for change through mutually influential relationships between the person and the cultural and ecological systems in which she/he interacts, including the family (Bronfenbrenner, 1987). The Positive Youth Development Theory (PYD) (Lerner et al., 2005) states that positive and adaptative adolescents’ behavior can be achieved if their interactions within their contexts tend to seek the well-being of all parties; this making a difference with the traditional approach of adolescence focused primarily on problems and the prevention of risk behaviors. In this regard, the family plays a key role as socializing agent. Therefore, fathers and mothers are expected to have the necessary parenting competences to perform positively their parenting role, specially through a democratic educational style based on respect and mutual understanding (Baumrind, 1991). 

Traditionally and internationally, also at an European level, most studies on this matter have focused on analyzing mothers’ parenting competences and involvement in their children’s upbringing. When including both parents, most of them analyze jointly the father`s and the mother`s educational styles (Wang et al., 2011). However, the question arises as to whether their respective parenting competencies vary in both, and if these variations produce differential effects on adolescents. On the other hand, in the international review carried out by Yárnoz Yaben (2006) regarding the social changes of the last decades and their influence on the distribution of functions of the father and the mother, the authors concluded that adolescents perceive a close relationship also with their fathers, which positively correlated with their academic results, and adaptive behavior, thus emphasizing the contribution of the father to the well-being of their adolescents. Kan and Tsai (2005) found out that the parental educational style acts as an intermediary variable between the socio-educational status, children`s school performance and their state of mental health. McLoyd and Smith (2002) and Belsky et al. (2007) found that parents with low socio-educational level showed more indicators of low parental competence than those with higher educational levels; this due to their greater tendency towards the authoritarian style, which negatively affects the development of autonomy and self-esteem in their children; resulting in less academic achievement. Similarly, Huang (2018) found out that while the democratic and permissive parenting styles are more identified in families with a high socio-educational level, authoritarian and negligent styles are more associated with low socio-educational standards. When taking into account the gender of the parents, Bøe et al. (2014) found out that mothers with higher educational level tended to apply with their children less discipline methods based on shouting or threats, compared with mothers with lower studies, who used more these control methods; as an effect, the children showed higher rates of aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, anxiety and depression.

Despite the studies consulted, there is still needed to increase the knowledge on differential parenting competencies by gender of both parents, and how they may vary according to their literacy standards. This study aims to analyze these issues in order to identify possible implications for family intervention.

The study includes a Spanish random representative sample composed of 752 mothers and 670 fathers of adolescents, mostly from the same family unit. The Scale of Emotional and Social Parenting Competences for Parents of Adolescents (ECOPES-A) (Martínez González et al., 2021) validated by the authors through exploratory and confirmatory factorial analysis, was applied separately to both, fathers and mothers, to collect data on four factors: F1-Self-Control and Relaxation, F2-Self-esteem, F3-Imposition and F4-Communication. The Cronbach's alpha reliability index (α) for the total scale was around .70. An additional survey was also added to gather information on gender, educational level and other sociodemographic characteristics of the participants. Access to families was made through schools, who collaborated after signing up their consent. The schools delivered to their adolescent pupils an envelope with two questionnaires: one for the mother and another one for the father, and a letter introducing the research. Statistical comparisons on parental competencies based on the gender of the parents and their literacy level (compulsory, secondary or university) were carried out with Student's t test and analysis of variance. The effect size for the contrasts of two groups was estimated with Cohen's d, interpreting its magnitude as low when 0 < d < .20; medium-moderate when .20 ≤ d ≤ .50; and large when d > .50 (Cohen, 1988); in the contrasts of three groups, the effect size was verified with eta squared (η2), interpreting the magnitude small if η2 < 06, moderate when .06 ≤ η2 ≤ .14, and large with η2 ≥ .14 (Cohen, 1973). All calculations were made with SPSS 22.0.

The results indicate that mothers are more confident with their teens than fathers do, telling them more often both how adolescents make them fell with their behavior and the positive personal traits mothers see in them (F4-Communication). This result indicates greater communicative competence in mothers than in fathers to relate to their adolescents, and to boost their self-esteem. This difference may be associated with other differential result obtained in this study, related to the fact that fathers perceive themselves being able to self-control themselves more than the mothers perceive themselves on this competence (F1-Control-Relaxation). This lower self-control ability on the part of the mothers may be due to their greater emotional involvement with their children, as stated by Laible and Caro (2004); as well as that they assume more tasks related to household functioning (Meteyer & Perry-Jenkins, 2010). This can make them feel higher levels of stress, especially if they also work outside the home, limiting them to manage properly their emotions in front of their teenagers. Regarding the influence of the educational level of the parents in their parental role with adolescents, the results of this study indicate that those with a university degree show higher levels of parenting skills than those with only compulsory studies. As practical implications of this study it is worth mentioning that the management of emotions in the case of mothers, and affective communication, especially in fathers, are relevant competencies to be reinforced in targeted parenting programs to families with adolescents. Likewise, parents with lower educational levels, whether they are fathers or mothers, need more support to change their imposition tendency and to develop parenting competences based on negotiation, affection and communication.

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