Children are heavy adopters of social media, despite the terms of service being thirteen years of age (Ofcom, 2022). This occupancy within the digital space, is changing the experience of socialisation for children and young people (Ranzini and Hoek, 2017). Digital technology and social media add new dimensions that children must navigate, and consequently social media has altered the notions of space, community and identity and the relationships between them (Thomson et al., 2018). For tweens (8 – 12-year-olds) on the cusp of adolescence, the presentation of a ‘digital identity’ involves a self-curated digital content in the form of narrative, images, and photographs. Furthermore, online virtual communities have been created and within a social-technical context, children and digital technologies interact (MacDonald et al., 2022). In this research, the age group of 10 and 11 years old was specifically chosen, as arguably, it is when they are becoming more influenced by peer culture (Steinbekk et al., 2021) and making tentative steps around shaping their own identity that is separate from their family and immediate influences of the home environment (James and Prout, 2015). Moreover, it is also the age group that is most likely to experience having their own mobile phone for the first time (Pangrazio and Gaibisso, 2020).

It is apparent that much of the literature and research on children’s social media use, as well as in mainstream media, is often shown through a deterministic lens, with children being portrayed as having little or no agency. Therefore, children’s social media usage is often viewed and represented in problematic terms or from ‘adultist views’ (Phippen and Street, 2022, p.43) with grooming, catfishing, and predator behaviour invariably seen as a jeopardy of digital spaces and exploitation as a real possibility (Reeves and Crowther, 2019). Consequently, to challenge this deterministic outlook, a theoretical framework that positions children as the experts in their own lives (James and James, 2004) and as active participants, capable of decision-making (Dockett et al, 2012) was held central to this research. It is important not to report a homogenous experience of children’s social media use and recognise their subjectivity within their experience, just as real-life socialisation and identity portrayal would entail. Implementing a social constructivist perspective, thus, allows for a situatedness of their experiences through their own narrative.

The theoretical lens of Goffman’s (1959) Impression Management was employed to this research, with the assumption that individuals strive to control or guide the impression of how others perceive them with how they present their appearance, attitude and manner depending on the audience that they encounter. Through these social interactions with others as an audience could consequently be viewed as the building blocks of our identity formation and how our beliefs, values, subjectivities, and behaviours are shaped. Goffman’s (1971) dramaturgical approach utilises the metaphor of the stage to illustrate differences between situations where self-presentation is salient and those that are less pronounced. This distinction may not be as apparent on social media though as profile pages of social media networks are artefacts that exist to position the creator in relation to the reader/audience and this may be carefully curated. For tweens this may be even more problematic, as they tentatively explore their identity in digital spaces, with social media being viewed as an additional stage for their performances that has a more permanent nature than the visceral experiences of real life interaction (Zhao, 2005). The research questions focused on how children’s identities are shaped by their experiences of social media, with the influence of gendered stereotypes and the pressures of these digital spaces.

This research utilised a social constructionist ontology with the view that reality is neither objective nor singular and instead the notion that multiple realities are created by individuals (Arthur et al., 2012) and therefore tweens experience social media subjectively. An interpretivist epistemology was employed with the premise that individuals are each situated within a personal, societal, and cultural construct and their subjective experience of childhood is changing due to the pervasive nature of social media (Thomson et al., 2018). Four primary schools in the South Wales area were recruited for the research with varying demographics of both a higher and a lower socio-economic bias based on their intake indicated by Free School Meal status. Eight focus groups were conducted in total, two in each setting, N = 40 (participants were between 10 and 11 years old) self-nominated children, 20 males and 20 females. Focus groups were conducted with various activities for example looking at faux profiles and posts, Snapchat filters, emojis and advertisements. The same questions were asked but lines of enquiry were pursued by the researcher. This method can reveal attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and feelings of participants and can help facilitate a holistic picture of children’s culture and language; a consensual view with rich responses (O’Reilly et al., 2013). Following the focus groups, 16 children were selected with the help of the teacher, these were also children who were vocal and some who were reticent in the focus group discussions. Collaging with an informal interview was conducted as a means of engaging with the children in a creative, participatory way. In this visual method, participants are invited to create a visual representation using college-making materials such as coloured beads, ribbon, sequins, balloons, tissue paper and feathers for example (Roberts and Woods, 2018). The collection of images requires thought over an extended period and allows the participant to slow down and connect with their own life (Mannay, 2016). Also, using this method, authenticity is high as it can facilitate an honest and accurate reflection (Grant, 2019). Roberts and Woods (2018) indicate that collage has the capacity to act to help conceptualise ideas and can represent subtleties of experiences and profound feelings and understandings and can act as ‘tin openers’ for talk, this was especially apparent to capture children’s subjectivities. The children were asked to think about their identity and how they see themselves on social media and real life.

The focus groups were thematically analysed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) model, this approach was also utilised for the collage data in the first instance but later the same data set was interrogated using analytic questions derived from Rose (2016) and Grbich (2012). This was followed by Brown and Collins’ (2021) analytical visuo-textual framework, which had three elements and two levels, combining the visual with the textual. A master theme that emerged was ‘being and becoming in the digital space’, which included sub-themes of both positive/negative communication, feelings of belonging, and the possibilities of interaction. The sense of ludic that social media can engender was also apparent with reference to the entertainment purposes it can facilitate. The binary concept of ‘being’ and ‘becoming’ was disputed and children’s experiences were situated as more of a nuanced depiction that encompasses both elements. The changing nature of childhood and how everyday parenting and schooling thus play an integral part in shaping discourse surrounding technology and social media use (Thomson et al., 2018) was also apparent. The second master theme was ‘the presentation of self within the digital space’ with the sub-themes of impression management, self-expression, celebrity influence, fakeness, validation, and image manipulation in relation to societal norms. This theme exemplified how Goffman’s (1959) perceived audience resonated in a digital space and influenced how children saw themselves and perceived others. This amplification was apparently due to the nature of social media and the discursive element allowing users to curate their own portrayal of self in relation to the likes and comments they may receive (Potter, 2012). The affordances of how filters can be used as props to alter images (Ditchfield, 2019) and perpetuate gender stereotypes was also been seen to be a much more prevalent issue for girls.

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