Our research topic is observation-based and collaborative learning, forms of informal learning, among students preparing for an ISCED level 3 qualification, and among the students and adults they observe. We are looking for answers to the question of the extent to which this type of learning is present in the lives of apprentices. The target group of the survey is young apprentices in 3-year apprenticeship in Hungary and Poland, who obtain an ISCED level 3 qualification at the end of their studies, and who do not have direct access to higher education. We are studying this group of students because they often experience difficulties with formal learning, and teacher feedback suggests that informal learning can often be more effective for them. A further reason for focusing on them is that little attention is paid to lower secondary VET (Benke & Rachwał, 2022) where young people are often disadvantaged in many respects, many of whom drop out and often end up in vulnerable groups of workers after leaving shool.

According to Werquin (2008), informal learning can be part of the process of practicing cognition and mastery, including observing and assisting in task-related operations. It includes performing and practicing tasks with others, communicating about the task before it is performed, planning the task, discussing the main steps, distributing tasks, and finally discussing and evaluating the results.

Our research focuses on how students observe work-process by observing apprentices and experienced adults at work, watching professional programmes on television and the internet. We research also their communication and collaboration on work tasks and their joint practice based on apprentices' perceptions.

The theories of Connectivism Learning Theory, Situated cognition, and Social Learning Theory were invoked mainly as the theoretical background for the research. According to the Connectivism Learning Theory, learning occurs in a variety of ways and forms, through communities of practice, personal networks, and the completion of work-related tasks (Siemens, G. 2004, 2018). We derive our competence from forming connections. The extension of a personal network creates new ways for gathering new knowledge. Other people’s experiences become the surrogate for our new knowledge. The Connectivism Learning Theory emphasizes that the newest generation of students is generally strongly linked to social media and online collaborative tools. In recent years, a new group of learners appeared who are considered part of the 'digital native' or the 'net generation'. The human experience is infinitely varied, so there are many approaches to media and learning in particular (Downes, 2010). According to Situated cognition, learning happens within situational contexts. Students can acquire knowledge from observing others and making practice. Situated learning occurs in the context of the experience. Situational learning places great emphasis on relationships and interactions with others to build understanding. Situational learning works to develop the role of the student within the greater community (Brown et al., 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991, Billett, 1996). Bandura's (1986) social learning theory of learning through model observation and imitation provides also useful theoretical background for studying learning from others. We also refer to Boschma (2005) who draws attention to the five dimensions of proximity, which he defines as cognitive, organizational, social, institutional, and geographical proximity. He claims that without proximity, two potential partners cannot learn from each other. At least one of the above five dimensions must be met for the process of learning from each other to take place. A similar finding is made by Lengyel (2012) who points out that the further apart two partners are from each other on the social network, the more difficult they can learn from each other.

In spring 2022, a questionnaire survey was conducted in Hungary and Poland. The choice of schools was of great importance in the preparation for the work. In Hungary, the prolonged nationwide teachers' strike following the lifting of the COVID school lockout, and in Poland, the task of accommodating large numbers of Ukrainian refugee children in schools made it difficult for schools to organise an extra task like a survey. Finally, the survey took place in schools with personal contact in both countries, which limited the fulfillment of our original plan to involve students preparing for the same professions in the two countries. The questionnaire was completed by 241 vocational students (131 Hungarian, 110 Polish). In Hungary, the sample consists of one school with 131 students and includes construction, commerce, catering, and social qualifications. In Poland, the sample is very heterogeneous: the 110 students belong to 4 schools and 8 sectors (mechanic, food, hairdressing and cosmetic, hotel, catering and tourism, automotive, mechanical, construction, wood, and furniture). Most of the students have been studying in VET schools for one or two years in both countries, and are in the 15-17 age group. In Hungary, the school is located in the Eastern part of the country, in a deprived area. The Polish sample is spatially mixed, with 2 schools in a large city, in Krakow, and 2 in rural areas. The questionnaire consists of 37 questions, structured around five broad themes: the reasons for choosing a profession; the observation of and communication about activities related to the profession; the influence of TV and the internet, including the influence of role models and favourite famous people; satisfaction with school achievements; time spent with friends and on the internet in leisure time. We ask students about the observation of adults' work-related activities and students’ ability to learn from this observation. We ask about the importance of managing tasks together in the context of practical training, asking each other for help while doing a task together, and the frequency of learning together outside school. We also ask about the role of TV programmes and Internet sites, assuming that they may have a significant impact in some professions. The majority of the questions are closed questions with mostly intensity questions and with multiple-choice options for some cases. Most of our variables are discrete variables. To detect the relationships between them, we applied Chi2 and Fischer tests.

In processing the results so far, for most pairs of variables, no significant relationship was found. A significant relationship was found between observing adults at work and performing a similar task with help. Regardless of the profession, those who like collaborative exercises and would like to increase their proportion are more numerous. Independently of the role undertaken in the group, all students are more likely to turn to friends for help. Hungarian students were more likely than Polish learners to want to have more joint tasks in the future, but the difference was not significant. Most students don’t have role models, except those who nominated „star persons” seen on TV, e.g. famous chefs (HU) or „stars” of the automotive industry/sport in the case of the car mechanic profession (PL). When assessing the results obtained, it should be taken into account that the Hungarian sample concentrated in a single school in a disadvantaged area, and the questionnaire was self-completed. As all students in the Hungarian sample are students of the same school, they are exposed to the same school influences, but their work-placements are different. For the questions on practical work, students were likely to think of both locations, but our experience suggests that they are more likely to work together only in school workshops. As the Polish sample consisted of four schools with different backgrounds, and the students represented a total of eight professions, the outsourced practical background is even more diverse, but again, group work is more likely to take place in school workshops. We assume that exercises in-school workshops are likely to play a greater role in the process of learning from each other than work placements in companies. In the future, we are planning to carry out further surveys, and interviews with teachers, trainers, and students.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood-Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Benke, M. & Rachwał, T. (2022). The evolution of vocational education and training in Hungary and Poland 1989-2035. Hungarian Educational Research Journal. 12 (3), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1556/063.2022.00061, 328–356. Billett, S. (1996). Situated learning: Bridging sociocultural and cognitive theorising. Learning and Instruction. Volume 6, Issue 3, 263-280. Boschma, R. (2005). Proximity and Innovation: A Critical Assessment. Regional Studies, 1, 61-74. o. Brown, J. S., Collins, A. and Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18: 32–42. Downes, S. (2010). New technology supporting informal learning. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Web Intelligence, 2(1), 27–33. Knowles, M. S. (1950). Informal Adult Education. A Guide for Administrators, Leaders, and Teachers. New York Association Press. Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Lengyel, B. (2012). Tanulás, hálózatok, régiók. (Learning, networks, regions.) In: Rechnitzer, J. & Rácz, Sz. (szerk.). Dialógus a Regionális Tudományról. (Dialogue on Regional Science). Széchenyi István Egyetem, Regionális és Gazdaságtudományi Doktori Iskola. Magyar Regionális Tudományos Társaság, Győr. (Széchenyi István University, Doctoral School of Regional and Economic Sciences. Hungarian Regional Science Society) Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm (20.01.2023.) Siemens, G. (2018). Connectivism. In R. E. West, Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology: The Past, Present, and Future of Learning and Instructional Design Technology. EdTech Books. Retrieved from https://edtechbooks.org/lidtfoundations/connectivism (20.01.2023.) Werquin, P. (2008). Recognition of non-formal and informal learning in OECD countries https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285299051_Recognition_of_non-formal_and_informal_learning_in_OECD_countries (20.01.2023)