As education in general and VET systems in particular are influenced by and responsive to external drivers as well as policy or ideological considerations, assessment practices are also influenced by various factors and trends, such as social, demographic, economic, environmental, and technological trends and developments. Assessment is in particular influenced by changes related to educational principles and practices. Some factors that potentially shape the evolution of assessment in VET include, for example, the broadening of the skills and competence base of VET with a strengthened emphasis on general subjects and an increased focus on transversal skills and competences as well as changes in the organisation and delivery of VET (such as an increased focus on work-based learning). Also the growing emphasis on accountability can influence how assessment is organised and shaped. Additional contributing factors include the vast technological developments and digitalisation as well as the upskilling and reskilling needs of adults that are gradually driving authorities and providers to open up to new groups of learners.
Examining assessment approaches in VET in different countries and how they have developed over time can provide important insights into how learners’ competences and achievement of intended learning outcomes are determined, how evidence on an individual’s progress and achievement of learning goals is collected and judged and for what purposes the results are used.

The key research question underpinning this paper therefore is as follows: Which are the prevalent assessment forms applied in initial VET in Europe, how have these evolved during the past 25 years and what future trends can be identified?

This research applies an analytical framework that builds on Cedefop's (2020) ‘Three Perspectives Model for VET’, which comprises an epistemological and pedagogical perspective, an education system perspective and a socioeconomic perspective. This model includes diachronic (referring to changes over history within a country) and synchronic (comparisons between countries) analyses of VET systems and the development of corresponding patterns or profiles based on the interplay of characteristics.

While the original model includes assessment as one of the features of the epistemological and pedagogical perspective, a more detailed analysis of assessment approaches and their evolvement requires further differentiation of this dimension. This paper therefore ‘zooms in on assessment’ and identifies the following key areas to be explored for gaining insights into the changes in assessment: (a) main purposes and functions of assessment, (b) scope, focus and content of assessment, (c) reference points and criteria for assessments, (d) methods, tools and context of assessment and stakeholders involved, (e) alignment between intended learning outcomes, delivery of programmes and assessment criteria, (f) key technical characteristics ensuring quality of assessment.

To answer the research questions, several research methods and datasets were used, including desk research for conducting a comprehensive literature review for refining the analytical framework, specifying the key areas to be explored and identifying changes in assessment over time as well as future trends. Input from various experts across Europe and results of a survey among European VET providers were also used. The main source of information, however, were seven thematic case studies in seven countries (each focussing on specific features of assessment and related change processes) that were conducted based on desk research and interviews with relevant key stakeholders. The countries featured in the case studies include Austria, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Lithuania, the Netherlands, and Poland. The research was conducted in 2021 and 2022. The analytical framework provided the basis for both the design of the research instruments and the analysis of the data collected. Although the analytical model has some limitations (e.g. some of the dimensions refer to dichotomous characteristics and variants while others do not, and the model applies an artificial separation and differentiation of some dimensions that are actually closely related), the approach used in this study generally allowed for the identification of changes and trends in assessment.

The research findings show that assessment approaches in VET are continuously being reformed in many countries, indicating their importance in improving the quality and value of VET. The way in which assessment has evolved during the period of study is closely related to changes in the way qualifications and curricula are described and organised. The shift towards learning outcomes and the increased focus on flexible learning pathways has led to the introduction of new approaches to assessment. Closer links to the labour market and employer involvement in all aspects of VET can be seen as driving the introduction of assessment methods that are also closely related to the labour market (in terms of locations, tasks to be solved or stakeholders involved in the assessment). The developments that can be observed in European countries often do not follow a a linear process. In some cases, it is a matter of striving for an improved approach that is modified repeatedly, and at the same time there may be opposing tendencies. A kind of pendulum effect can be observed in some cases. For example, traditionally there has been a strong emphasis on summative assessment, while overall, an expansion of assessment functions, including formative assessment, can be observed. The latter aims at supporting learning and seems to be strengthened in several countries as a kind of countermeasure to the strong focus on summative assessment. There is also an increasing focus on standardised and external assessments, which are often used to ensure a high level of reliability of assessment, alongside an increasing use of workplace demonstrations of competence which can ensure authenticity and validity. However, trying to achieve different goals with assessment at the same time can lead to tensions (e.g. when accountability and reliability on the one hand and validity and authenticity on the other are to be achieved).

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