Information and Communication Technology (ICT) may fit into a spectrum of instructional approaches. There is an ongoing debate about pedagogical practices that provide an optimum basis for learning. Many educationalists have been promoting learner-centred learning environments which stimulate pupils to engage in active knowledge construction (Jonassen et al., 1999). Others have challenged this constructivist approach by pointing out that guided instruction is much more efficient and effective (Kirschner et al., 2006). Klahr and Nigam (2004) found that many more young children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning. Cronjé (2006) and Aylward and Cronjé (2022) argued that constructivist approaches and behaviourist approaches to teaching and learning should not be regarded as opposite to each other, but should be considered as two dimensions that should be plotted as orthogonal, resulting in a four-quadrant matrix of learning paradigms. Apart from these paradigms, other topics are of interest with regard to the use of ICT in education, e.g. addressing ICT literacy (Wu et al., 2022), and the use of ICT in assessment.

At the teacher level, the teacher’s pedagogical competences are a significant predictor of the teacher’s use of ICT in education (Liu et al., 2017; Petko, 2012; Suárez-Rodríguez et al., 2018). Cheng et al. (2021) found that teachers’ competence beliefs moderated the effect of traditional pedagogical beliefs on technology integration.

Studies have shown that significant differences between schools may arise with respect to the nature and frequency of ICT use. Vanderlinde et al. (2014) found that 14 percent of the variance in ICT use by teachers was due to differences between schools, and pointed at teachers’ ICT competences, teachers’ developmental educational beliefs, ICT professional development, and the school’s ICT vision and policy as relevant factors at the school level. Inan and Lowther (2010) concluded that ICT integration by teachers is a complex process that is influenced by teacher characteristics as well as by the teachers’ perception of the school environment. Teachers’ beliefs and readiness appeared to be positively affected by three school-level factors: the availability of computers, technical support, and overall support. Chou et al. (2019) concluded that an organisation’s innovation climate is significantly related with innovative teaching using ICT. Eickelmann (2011) found that the role of the principal is crucial in schools that are successful in implementing ICT.

The focus of the present study is on ICT-related pedagogical practices in primary schools, on factors that influence these practices, on the expected future use of ICT in classes and on professional development needs, as perceived by teachers. In addition, school level factors are addressed. The research questions are as follows:

1) What types of ICT-related pedagogical practices are applied by teachers in primary schools?

2) What factors at the teacher level are linked to a high frequency of ICT use in classes?

3) What factors at the school level are linked to a high frequency of ICT use in classes?

4) What do teachers expect with respect to their future use of ICT in classes?

5) What are teachers’ professional development needs in order to be ready for future ICT use?

Web surveys were administered to teachers and to school leaders in The Netherlands. A call for participation was placed on the website of an organisation that supports school boards in primary education and on the website of a foundation that promotes and supports the use of ICT in education. School boards and schools were promised school-specific feedback if they participated in the study. School leaders were provided with school-specific web links to the surveys. The two datasets consist of survey data from 1542 teachers from 322 schools and 357 school leaders. In addition, a joint dataset was created in order to carry out multilevel analyses. Likert scales were applied and factor analyses and reliability analyses were carried out in order to obtain reliable scale variables. Cronbach Alpha scores of all scales were sufficient, with ranges between .72 and .94 at the teacher level and between .67 and .92 at the school level. In the teacher survey the following topics were addressed: - background variables - type and frequency of present and future ICT use in classes: 10 scales - self-rating of ICT-related competences: 2 scales - preconditions with respect to ICT use at school: 1 scale - professional development needs with respect to future ICT use With respect to the type and frequency of ICT use the following scales were constructed: Teacher directed ICT use, Learner centred ICT use, Preparing students for living and learning in a digital era, Use of digital learning materials, and Testing and assessment with ICT. In addition a ICT use index score was calculated with a potential range from 0 to 100. Based on the scores of the present use index, all teachers were attributed to a quartile. In order to gain insight into the professional development needed to prepare teachers for the future, the discrepancy between the reported present use of ICT in classes and the expected future use was calculated in real time for all single items. Before completing the questionnaire, the teachers were presented with the 10 items that showed the largest discrepancies. Subsequently, they were asked whether they would need professional development regarding those specific ICT-related teaching activities. Variables in the school leader survey included some background variables and several scale variables: the scales regarding present and expected future use of ICT, the school leaders’ views on the ICT-related competences of the teachers, and their views on the preconditions with respect to ICT use at school.

Overall, focus was on teacher directed ICT-related activities, and less on learner centred activities. This applies to teachers in all quartiles. There was a fair amount of attention for preparing students for living and learning in a digital era. The teachers’ self-rated ICT-related pedagogical competences accounted for 39% of the explained variance in the index of present ICT-use in classes. Differences between schools accounted for 21% variance. Based on teachers’ expectations the conclusion can be drawn that differences between teachers in the intensity of ICT use in classes will decrease in future. Teachers in the lower quartiles expected a larger increase than teachers in the higher quartiles. There were differences between teachers from different quartiles with respect to professional development needed to prepare them for future ICT use in education. At the conference, more detailed outcomes will be presented, including outcomes of the multilevel analyses. Implications for school policy on ICT use in education and for teacher professional development will be discussed.

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