Deaf communities are generically defined as linguistic-cultural communities whose members use sign language as their primary means of communication (Marschark et al., 2017; Higgins & Liberman, 2016). On the other hand, even though in Deaf communities and families Deaf cultures and sign languages tend to act as a decisive unifying force that transcends ethno-cultural differentiation, Deaf cultures also include other cultural elements, such as ethno-national identities (Leigh & Crowe, 2015). Studies have shown that ethnic minority deaf individuals may face identity conflicts when their cultural and linguistic heritage is distinct from the dominant deaf culture or the majority culture of their country. Such conflicts can lead to feelings of marginalization, isolation, and reduced social integration within both their ethnic and Deaf communities (Leigh, 2009 ; Chapman, 2021).  

Ethnic minority deaf individuals are in a special situation in this regard, as they need to navigate the intersections of their deaf identity and their ties to a specific ethnic or cultural group. In this context, the identity of the Deaf members of the ethnic minority may present specific characteristics compared to that of the deaf belonging to the majority ethnic community, but also to the ethnic identity of the hearing members of the ethnic minority community (Ahmad et al, 2000; Atkin, 2002). The notion of bilingualism, when referring to the linguistic-cultural needs of the ethnic-national minority Deaf learners, may be therefore misleading, as these learners are in fact in a situation of dual bilingualism (Ohna 2003).

On the other hand, it is important to emphasise that differences between national sign languages are to a much lesser extent an obstacle to the communication of Deaf people belonging to different ethno-national communities than in the world of hearing culture. Deaf people living in a sign culture have a great capacity and tendency to learn from each other in a short time, to adapt to each other's specific forms of sign language expression (Henner & Robinson, 2023). One of the very important roles, which needs to be assumed by the of the educational system in this regard, is to integrate multiculturalism and multilingualism in the curriculum and teaching methodology in accordance with the students identity development needs (Dammeyer & Marschark, 2016).

Previous research conducted by the author in the multicultural city of Oradea (western Romania), which involved ethnic Hungarian Deaf and their ethnic Romanian partners, has drawn attention to the potential importance of generational continuity in generating multicultural and multilingual family environment. Based on the results of this research, the hypothesis has been advanced that in multigenerational Deaf families a kind of specific linguistic and cultural enrichment and a striving for cultural-linguistic balance can manifest itself, which might stem from the natural openness and flexibility arising from the specific communication and cultural situation of these families.

The aim of the current research ha has been therefore to focus on multi-generational ethnic minority/ethnically heterogeneous Deaf families in order to obtain more nuanced information concerning the role of the family generational continuity of Deaf cultures in influencing linguistic communicational and cultural interactions and cross-generational transmission of identities within multigenerational Deaf families. In doing so, the following research questions have been addressed:

1. What role does the interaction between childhood family socialization and school socialization play in the development of the linguistic and cultural identities of Deaf children raised in multi-generational Deaf families?
2. What are the main intra-familiar linguistic communication methods and trends which characteristically occur in multi-generational Deaf families?
3. What are the characteristics of cross-generational transmission of identities to deaf and hearing children in multi-generational Deaf families and how they influence the educational options of the parents of Deaf children?

This research is based on five multi-generational ethnic minority/ethnically heterogeneous Deaf family case studies. Our case studies focused on the particular subset of the Hungarian ethnic community members/ethnic Romanian spouses, who are members of multi-generational Deaf families identified in our research sample during the first phase of research. In the selection of the families included in the research sample within the database of the Deaf Association of Oradea, a total of 587 persons, we identified 89 signing deaf individuals of Hungarian ethnic belonging, 22 of who were married to a Romanian Deaf partner. Among them, there are five multigenerational Deaf families where at least one family member is of Hungarian ethnicity: these include two three-generation and three two-generation Deaf families. Subordinated to the case study methodology, for the data collection process at family level, we conducted life-course interviews with the selected Deaf individuals in order to reveal their deeper motives and personal ways of reaching life-shaping decisions, the subjective means of experiencing key events occurred in one's life, and their influence to education, language use and identity. On the basis of these findings the following main life course stages have been identified: a. Childhood socialization: language use and identity in early life; family socialization and early development; determinants of school choice; school culture, language and communication; school language and ethnic identity; b. Setting up a family and language use within the family: starting of family, cultural determinants of marital choices; the influence of the language of education upon the choice of marital partners; languages used between the spouses, between parents and children and between members of the larger family involving different generations; c. Cross-generational transmission of identity; ways and channels of identity transmission to Deaf and hearing children; linguistic educational options of parents for their children, family interactions involved in the process of passing identity to the next generation.

In multi-generational Deaf families the preconditions for symbolically expressing ethnic-national identity through the use and cultivation of the respective national sign language in family and in school might become especially favourable. In this context, the national sign language knowledge gained by Deaf children of Deaf parents within the family and further developed in special school years can act as an important way of expressing ethno-national identity. In the ethnically heterogeneous family units where Deaf culture has a primary role and components of Deaf culture interact with minority and majority ethno-national identities of hearing family members, complex identity patterns may develop and multifaceted linguistic communication models may prevail, including the use of both the national oral languages and the national sign languages of the parties involved; a kind of special linguistic and cultural enrichment, a striving for cultural-linguistic balance may also occur. In multi-generational ethnic minority/ethnically heterogeneous Deaf families one can identify a particular kind of natural openness and flexibility resulting from the special linguistic communications situation of Deaf. Thanks to the complexity of their family and school socialisation, cultural and linguistic family contacts and attachments, members of ethnic minority/ethnically heterogeneous Deaf families are potentially more flexible in accepting other cultures (norms, values), and they can also more easily develop the ability to regulate flexibly their language use according to the given social situations. The process of passing down identity can become particularly complicated in those multigenerational extended family interactions (including grandparents, parents and children), where Deaf and non-Deaf family members, with national majority and national minority identities are interacting. In these situations different ways and methods of passing on identity, with particular characteristics, can be realized. The educational options of parents, concerning the languages of school for their children are an important component of this process.

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