In the field of inclusive education teachers’ attitudes constitute a central focus of research, in particular those of pre-service teachers (Schwab, 2018; Amor et al., 2019; Van Steen & Wilson, 2020). These studies generally focus on disability-related issues, such as  teachers’ opinions, beliefs or even fears, as well as their propension to adopt certain types of differentiation strategies or to collaborate with colleagues to support students with special educational needs.

Research on discriminatory attitudes is fragmented around the three big "isms" (racism, sexism, and classism) (Gimez, 2001; Collins, 2019), while ableism, which entails all phenomena targeting (dis)ability, is still a neglected subject. With reference to discriminatory attitudes among teachers, studies are even rarer, especially those investigating possible implications of implicit attitudes and behaviors. Nevertheless, according to some studies teachers would daily act biased micro-interactions, such as differentiating communication, eye contact, tone of voice, and assessment procedures according to the individual characteristics of the pupils (e.g. skin color, height, weight, manifestation of behavioral problems, etc.) (e.g., Turetsky et al., 2021; Costa, Langher & Pirchio, 2021; Nutter et al., 2019), affecting negatively pupils’ learning and self-esteem, while favoring pupils' belonging to the majority group (e.g. Pin-Ten Cate & Glock, 2019).

On the other hand, according to international literature in the field, teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion might be modified through training (Lautenbach & Heyder, 2019) and interaction with or experience of pupils with disabilities (Guillemot, Lacroix & Nocus, 2022; de Boer, Pijl & Minnaert, 2020; Avramidis & Norwich, 2022).

These findings highlight the importance of teacher training, both pre-service and in-service. 

On this background, our research had three main objectives: 

1. To investigate the prevalence of discriminatory attitudes among teachers (ableism, classism, racism, and sexism).
2. To analyze the interconnection between the four discriminatory attitudes.
3. To investigate how ableist attitudes influence the propensity to adopt differentiation strategies in order to meet the needs of pupils with disability and other special educational needs. 

For this reason, we developed and administered a questionnaire entailing validated scales on discriminatory attitudes (racism, sexism, classism and racism) and scales regarding teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive teaching (e.g. Ewing et al., 2017). The survey consisted of 23 questions, including items on socio-demographic such as gender, age, and educational background (i.e. teaching experience, participation in specific training courses related to inclusion, disabilities and special educational needs).

The study was conducted in April 2022 and involved a sample of teachers, belonging to school institutions of the Trentino-Alto Adige region. The schools were selected using a purposive sampling method based on three criteria: adequate representation of the school institutions in the region (with an equal number of comprehensive and secondary schools chosen), representation of each type of secondary school (academic, technical, and vocational), and equal weight to both Autonomous Provinces of Trento and Bolzano. Following the recruitment process, a total of 422 teachers participated in the survey from 7 schools in the region, including 4 comprehensive schools and 3 secondary schools. In conducting the correlation analysis, regression-derived factor scores were directly utilized to compute Pearson's linear correlation coefficients. For descriptive analysis, these scores were categorized into three levels based on standard deviation deviations from the mean: below -0.5 as Low Attitude, between -0.5 and +0.5 as Average Attitude, and above +0.5. To examine hypotheses related to the impact of targeted training on students with special educational needs and their influence on the propensity for inclusive teaching, both direct and mediated through ableist orientation, hierarchical linear regression and mediation models were employed. Jamovi and R were used for these analyses. At the end of the data analysis, a comprehensive report and 7 personalized ones, one for each participating school institution, were produced and forwarded to the principals and/or contact persons. The documents contained the overall results of the survey, referring to the entire region, as well as those relating to their own institution. Information were removed or anonymized assigning neutral denominations to the seven institutions involved (e.g. 'School 1'). The last section of the report was dedicated to suggestions for teacher training, justified on the basis of the institution's results. For example, in some schools the proportion of teachers declaring racist attitudes was higher, in others, the central theme appeared to be sexism. This report were aimed at informing schools about teachers’ training needs, as well as at creating a link between research and practice.

The results of our study confirmed the hypotheses initially formulated: 1. Inclusive teaching practices are predominantly influenced by targeted inclusion training, rather than variables like age, gender, or teaching experience. 2. Ableism, sexism, racism, and classism exhibit statistically significant interrelationships. 3. Ableism negatively predicts inclusiveness levels. Our results highlight the relevance of the topic of ableism in teacher training. However, further studies on representative samples are required. Moreover, there is a need to investigate the effects of biased teachers’ attitudes on pupils' school experience, in particular, on learning, motivation and self-perception. The results in relation to training reinforce the conviction that it is necessary to invest in the sector, both in initial and in-service training. The combined results regarding teacher training and previous experiences with people with disabilities, suggest, on the one hand, the importance of guaranteeing greater visibility to people with disabilities in every sphere of life (at school, at work, in the media, in leisure time, etc.), and on the other hand, the need to facilitate contact between people with and without disabilities, including in teacher training, by attracting more students with disabilities and more trainers or university lecturers with disabilities. Another avenue may be to create field activities and opportunities to meet people with disabilities in teacher training. The limitations of the study include the impossibility of comparing data on attitudes with what actually happens in classrooms, in terms of teaching choices, interaction and assessment methods. Teachers' statements on inclusion, in fact, are not necessarily a mirror of what is being realised, both due to social desirability (Lüke & Grosche, 2018) and to the fact that teachers may not be fully aware of their behaviors.

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