In Central and Eastern Europe, higher education institutions are run, besides public institutions, by non-governmental organizations, such as religious organizations and foundations. International research shows that non-governmental higher education in the 21^st century can exhibit much more distinctive features than in the past (Benne, 2001; James, 2006; Carpenter, 2014; Berger, 2021). This is mostly due to the uniformization of higher education as a result of the monkey policy caused by an international ranking fetishism (Hrubos, 2012). Consequently, it fails to meet the needs of various types of students in a highly pluralized society (Hrubos, 2012; Berger, 2021). As a result of all this, in the competition for students, the expression of institutional identity and culture can become more prominent in order to meet the expectations of specific student groups (Reynolds & Wallace, 2016; Hulme et al., 2016). Forced to respond, the non-governmental sector can either become uniform (Reynolds & Wallace, 2016; Hulme et al., 2016) or assume an individual profile (Sullivan, 2019; Rizzi, 2019; Mishra, 2020). One option is to choose to compete with institutions belonging to the public sector by assimilating into the sphere dominated by state, renouncing the distinctive features of its institutional culture, but, on the other hand, approaching students who are also attracted by public institutions. Another option is to slightly distance itself from the competitive arena of global higher education, and construct a special, for example denominational institutional culture, thereby attracting students who are seeking an environment with a distinctly denominational institutional culture. The need to respond brings about a diversity within the non-governmental sector, and although these institutions are represented globally, it serves fundamentally different functions in various geographical, regional-societal, and cultural segments (James, 2006). The diversity within the non-governmental sector can be grasped at several levels, it is most evident, however, in the institutional culture, as institutions utilize the channels of institutional culture to emphasize diversity and various functions.

The institutional culture characteristic of non-governmental organizations is perceived by some through dimensions such as institutional leadership, education, and academic research (Barton, 2019; Batugal & Tindowen, 2019), while others investigate it within the dimensions of student community and student life (Rizzi, 2019). Building on the results of institutional culture research, the current thesis focuses on the student dimensions of institutional culture. The first dimension of institutional culture perceived at the student level is recruitment as the message the institution conveys to prospective students is a significant manifestation of institutional culture, as well as the assumptions different groups of students have when choosing a specific institution (Bess & Dee, 2012), i.e. the self-selection performed on the basis of the anticipated institutional culture. The second dimension of the institutional culture perceived by students consists of learning characteristics as this reflects how students interpret the institutional goals. It includes the specifics of student performance patterns, student effort and academic progress (Hulme et al., 2016). The third dimension of institutional culture perceived from the student perspective involves relational integration within the institution, as well as trust, and satisfaction. Community life and experiences, along with inter- and intragenerational integration are fundamental aspects of institutional culture.

Analysing the international and national literature, the following question arises: inasmuch as, in response to the challenges, a distinct institutional culture is truly perceptible in denominational institutions, how attractive can the examined institutions be as alternatives to non-governmental sector higher education institutions in the globalized, pluralistic, post-Christian era (Sullivan, 2019). Additionally, considering the continuously narrowing pool of higher education applicants, which institutional culture might different groups of prospective students be most open to.

In our qualitative research we used the Dropout 2019 questionnaire designed by the Center for Higher Education Research and Development (CHERD-H) and its database, PERSIST 2019, which we refined and supplemented with private- sector institutions to create our own database, SRAPHE 2019 (Students in Religious Affiliated and Public Higher Education), N=922. The questionnaire focuses on 11 dimensions. When creating the SRAPHE 2019 database, in the research focusing on each region under scrutiny a multi-stage sampling procedure was used. The first stage was devoted to the spatial delimitation of the regions under scrutiny, taking into account that the countries included in the study differ not only in terms of religiosity and denominational structure, but there are differences also within the countries. Central and Eastern European countries can basically be divided into two categories based on religiosity (Pusztai et al., 2016), thus we have selected two neighbouring countries, one from each category. Romania belongs to the group of strongly religious cultures, while Hungary belongs to the group characterized by a so-called cultural religiosity. Following the selection of the countries, in the second stage, we selected to neighbouring regions, one from each country, taking into account regions which traditionally have a non-state education sector in higher education, and thus the counties of Hajdú-Bihar and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg in the Northern Great Plain region of Hungary and Bihor county in the Romanian Partium region were selected for the sample. Once the counties were selected, all non-state higher education institutions in the county were selected and public institutions were assigned to these, thus creating pairs of public and non-state higher education institutions. When selecting the pairs of institutions, we aimed for similarities in the area of enrolment and training profile. The sub-sample consisted of students from public and non-state higher education institutions in a border region of Hungary and Romania who were studying in the same fields of study in the two sectors.

Our findings show that the study has revealed the distinct function and institutional culture of non-governmental higher education institutions. The impact of these institutions on students becomes apparent even in the anticipatory phase of student socialization, and it continues to manifest in various aspects of students' education and academic achievement. The findings cannot be generalized as the social, cultural, and geographical context significantly influences the character of the institutional culture of non-governmental higher education. Indicators examined present a culture that is inclusive towards individuals from various social strata. However, students' self-selection of institutions is significantly influenced by the perception that these institutions predominantly embrace those from disadvantaged backgrounds, and that, besides education, they strive to provide the expected cultural environment that aligns with students’ worldview. The results of this study provide a theoretical and practical basis for drawing the attention of decision-makers in non-governmental and public higher education to the fact that a unique institutional culture and distinct identity hold the potential to attract prospective students. By embracing a special affiliation in their formal and informal mission, non-governmental institutions have the opportunity to attract stakeholders within the shrinking student market and to create an institutional culture that can stand its ground in the competitive higher education landscape of the 21st century.

Barton, A. (2019). Preparing for Leadership Turnover in Christian Higher Education: Best Practices in Succession Planning. Christian Higher Education, 18(1-2), 37–53. Batugal, M. L. C., & Tindowen, D. J. C. (2019). Influence of Organizational Culture on Teachers' Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction: The Case of Catholic Higher Education Institutions in the Philippines. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 7(11), 2432–2443. Benne, R. (2001). Quality with Soul. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdamns Publishing Company. Berger, P., Grace, D., & Fokas, E. (2021). Religious America, Secular Europe. A Theme and Variations. Routledge. Bess, J. L., & Dee, J. R. (2012). Understanding College and University Organization. Theories for Effective Policy Practice. Stylus Publishing. Carpenter, J. (2014). Introduction: Christian Universities and the Global Expansion of Higher Education. In J. Carpenter, L. Perry & N. S. Lantinga (Eds.), Christian higher education: A global reconnaissance (pp. 8–19). William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Hrubos, I. (Eds.) (2012). Elefánttoronyból világtorony. A felsőoktatási intézmények misszióinak bővülése, átalakulása. AULA Kiadó Kft. Hulme, E. E., Groom, D. E., Jr., & Heltzel, J. M. (2016). “Reimagining Christian Higher Education”. Christian Higher Education, 15(1–2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15363759.2016.1107348 James, A. (2006). Faith and Secularisation in Religious Colleges and Universities. Routledge. Reynolds, J., & Wallace, J. (2016). Envisioning the Future of Christian Higher Education: Leadership for Embracing, Engaging, and Executing in a Changing Landscape. Christian Higher Education, 15(1–2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15363759.2016.1107340 Mishra, S. (2020). Social networks, social capital, social support and academnic success in higher education: A systematic review with a special focus on ’underrepresented’ students. Educational Research Review, 29. Pusztai, G., & Farkas, Cs. (2016). Church-Related Higher Education in Central and Eastern Europe Twenty Years after Political Transition. In A. Máté-Tóth & G. Rosta (Eds.), Focus on Religion in Central and Eastern Europe: A Regional View (pp. 129–157). De Gruyter Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110228120-005 Rizzi, M. (2019). “Defining Catholic Higher Education in Positive, Not Negative, Terms”. Journal of Catholic Education, 22(2), 1. Sullivan, J. (2019). Catholic Universities as Counter-cultural to Universities PLC. International Studies in Catholic Education, 11(2), 190-203.