The negative grading effect (NGE) is the decrement in grade outcomes associated with the process of being assessed and graded. By exploiting the natural experimental conditions resulting from the introduction or abolition of grades earlier in the school career, researchers have been able to contrast the outcomes of comparable groups of Swedish students with different grading backgrounds, i.e. whether they were previously graded or not. The effect has repeatedly been identified in students’ year 9 (age 15/16) grades, and seems to particularly affect low-ability students and boys (Facchinello, 2014; Klapp, Cliffordson, & Gustafsson, 2016; Clarke, Klapp, & Rosen, under review). Despite substantial reforms to the grading and assessment system, the effect persists and thus seems to have an enduring and robust impact on compulsory school students’ grades.
When investigating the effect, previous research has, however, tended to combine the results from multiple or all school subjects together, thus losing the possibility to identify detail and nuance in how the NGE may differentially impact individual school subjects. There is a strong imperative for investigating the NGE for individual subjects rather than using aggregated grades like SAT- or GPA-scores. As they are the primary means of student sorting to higher education and employment Swedish school grades have become increasingly high-stakes (Lundahl, Hultén, & Tveit, 2017) and may be driving student testing and grading anxiety, a factor known to affect test performance. Previous research indicates that students’ levels of test anxiety varies between subjects with the suggestion that there may even be subject-specific anxieties (e.g. mathematics anxiety (Mammarella, Donolato, Caviolo, & Giofrè, 2018)). Student self-efficacy beliefs also vary between subjects, with high self-efficacy thought to be a protective factor against test anxiety (Marsh, 1990; Mammarella, Donolato, Caviolo, & Giofrè, 2018). Different subjects are also taught by different teachers, have different content requiring different modes of thinking, and are likely to receive very different test feedback, another factor which impacts subjects differently (Azmat & Iriberri, 2010). These few examples suggest that the impact of being graded is dependent on several factors which vary from subject to subject, and supports the need to investigate the NGE for different subjects.
This research intends to replicate and extend previous research to investigate how the NGE manifests in different school subjects. By comparing the year 9 grade outcomes in different subjects of students who were either previously graded in year 6 or not it is hoped to establish how the NGE varies across different subjects. As with previous research, how factors such as gender, parental educational background, immigration status, and student’s cognitive ability affect the expression of the NGE will also be investigated.
The research is relevant also to wider audiences than just the Swedish education system. As the NGE has been shown to be robust across variations in the Swedish system it is reasonable to infer that it might exist in other the results of other countries, especially given that Sweden is not unique in using end of year grades for high-stakes purposes like admission to further education and employment.

This quasi-experimental study plans to use structural equation modelling or multivariate regression analyses of data collected in the Evaluation Through Follow-up project of Sweden’s compulsory school students. The database contains information from recurring studies of cohorts of students since 1948 to present. The database contains student and parental demographic background and questionnaire data, as well as teacher and school information. The data contains student academic performance measures from multiple points in their academic career as well as cognitive ability measures collected by testing the students in year 6 (age 12/13). The analysis uses birth-cohorts 1992 (N = 10147) and 2004 (N = 9775). This comparison allows for the evaluation of the academic outcomes of students in cohorts before and after a reform that lowered the age at which students are first graded. The reforms also introduced changes which increased the stakes of grades by i. a. introduction of a fail grade. The outcomes of students who have previously been graded will be compared on a by-subject level to those who have not previously received grades to determine whether having previously received grades has differential effects for different subjects. In addition to the grading status of the students, the analysis will also include the independent variables for student gender, parental education level, immigration background, and student cognitive ability levels. The dependent variables will be the grade outcomes for the school subjects studied achieved at the end of school year 9 (age 15/16). Data are available for around 14 subjects. Statistical analysis and modelling will use Mplus version 8.5 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2019) which can account for missing data and possible clustering effects of students within schools.

Further support for the presence of the NGE is expected. The NGE is expected to vary in magnitude between subjects. However, at this stage, the exact nature of how the NGE varies between the various school subjects or the presence of any patterns or groupings of the subjects has not yet been determined. The remaining independent variables are expected to show similar relationships to the grade outcomes as previous research has established, though again, some between-subject variation is expected, but has not yet been determined. The study is ongoing and results are expected around Summer 2024. The study is a part of the research project funded by the Swedish Research Council (2019-04531).

Azmat, G., & Iriberri, N. (2010). The importance of relative performance feedback information: Evidence from a natural experiment using high school students. Journal of Public Economics, 94, 435-452. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.04.001 Clarke, D. R., Klapp, A., & Rosen, M. (under review). The negative effect of earlier grading. Facchinello, L. (2014). The impact of early grading on academic choices: mechanisms and social implications. Department of Economics. Stockholm: Stockholm Schools of Economics. Retrieved from https://mysu.sabanciuniv.edu/events/sites/mysu.sabanciuniv.edu.events/files/units/FASS%20Editor/jmp_-_luca_facchinello.pdf Klapp, A., Cliffordson, C., & Gustafsson, J.-E. (2016). The effect of being graded on later achievement: evidence from 13-year olds in Swedish compulsory school. Educational Psychology, 36(10), 1771-1789. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2014.933176 Lundahl, C., Hultén, M., & Tveit, S. (2017). The power of teacher-assigned grades in outcome-based education. Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 3(1), 56-66. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/20020317.2017.1317229 Mammarella, I. C., Donolato, E., Caviolo, S., & Giofrè, D. (2018). Anxiety profiles and protective factors: A latent profile analysis in children. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 201-208. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.017 Marsh, H. W. (1990). The structure of academic self-concept: The Marsh/Shavelson Model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 623-636. Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (1998-2019). Mplus user's guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author.