Educational theory in the Netherlands was in the 1990s dominated by the concept of ‘self-regulation’ ((Simons, Van der Linden & Duffy, 2000; Veugelers, 2004). With concepts such as independent learning, learning to learn, and taking one’s own responsibility, students were very much addressed as individuals. The tendency towards individualization evident at that time in society was reproduced in education, and the aim of education was to prepare students to take on their own responsibility in society. Due to social and cultural problems like violence, lost of social cohesion and lack of social and political trust there have been moves in the Netherlands in favour of reassessing the social aspect of education (Veugelers, 2007). Education must regarding educational policy in the Netherlands now more then before contribute towards preparing young people for their role in society. In these views participation in society necessitates social skills, such as being able to work together and social attitudes. The desired social cohesion in society requires commitment on the part of citizens to society and to each other. Education should therefore contribute towards developing an attitude focused on social commitment and involvement. In recent political debates on citizenship education the important role of education has been stressed.

Active citizenship and active citizenship education

In earlier research we established three types of citizen: the adapting citizen, the individualistic citizen, and the critical-democratic citizen (Veugelers & De Kat, 2003; Leenders & Veugelers, 2006; Leenders, Veugelers & De Kat, 2008a; 2008b). These three types of citizen manifest different relationships between adjustment, autonomy and social involvement. The various types of citizenship are linked to certain methods and therefore certain forms of student participation. The critical-democratic type of citizenship we advocate requires an active, dynamic, dialogical and reflective vision of education. It requires active student participation in all the different facets of learning, in school and in extra-curricular learning experiences outside school.

Westheimer and Kahne (2004) show in their research into the organization and effects of service-learning, that active participation can be done in a wide range of different ways. Service-learning has a long tradition in the United States and voluntary work is an important feature of ‘civil society’ in America (Putnam, 2000). During their education, students become familiar with providing service to others in service-learning. In the Netherlands, there have recently been a number of experiments with service learning projects. The research by Westheimer and Kahne (2004) shows that such projects can focus on different goals: on the execution of tasks, on organizing activities or on changing an activity based on analysis and a social justice approach towards the underlying problem. Service learning and social orientation can therefore be interpreted in various different ways. The kinds of knowledge, skills and attitudes students develop depend very much on the focus of the activity. The different ways of participating results in different types of citizenship. Westheimer and Kahne (2004) call them the personal responsible citizen, the participatory citizen and the social-justice oriented citizen.

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