In an era of increasing political polarization across Europe, and with 122 million refugees worldwide (UNHCR, 2025) questions of social justice and solidarity have become central to public discourse and educational practice (Reeskens and Van der Meer, 2019).

Immigration remains one of the most discussed issues in contemporary European societies, with immigrants consistently identified as among the most "undeserving" groups (Van Oorschot, 2006; Heuer & Zimmermann, 2020). This positioning raises fundamental questions of equity and inclusion that extend into educational settings where teachers and administrators make daily decisions affecting immigrant students and families. While groups like the elderly are widely viewed as deserving of support, immigrants face persistent stigmatization regardless of their contributions (Reeskens & Van der Meer, 2019). According to self-interest theory, individuals with vulnerable socioeconomic positions perceive immigrants as economic competitors and threats to welfare resources, leading to opposition to immigration (Green, 2007; Cooper & Burchardt, 2022). These perceptions influence policy implementation (Knotz et al., 2022), affect social integration (Ratzmann & Sahraoui, 2021), shape boundaries of "social membership" in welfare states (Kymlicka, 2015), and may manifest in educational inequalities through attitudes, assessments, and resource allocation.

Political ideology adds complexity to understanding these attitudes and their educational manifestations. Political orientation significantly influences how citizens—including educators—conceptualize social justice, solidarity, and resource distribution (Wulfgramm & Starke, 2017). Right-wing contexts emphasize individual responsibility and conditional solidarity, often framing immigrants as burdens (Attewell, 2021). Left-wing environments promote redistribution and equality, yet support for immigrants' welfare rights remains discussed—the "progressive's dilemma" (Goodhart, 2004; Eger & Kulin, 2022). Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing migration-sensitive pedagogical approaches that challenge rather than reproduce inequalities.

This study addresses the research questions of how perceptions of deservingness affect Europeans’ attitudes toward immigration and, in particular, whether this relationship, at the individual level, is conditional on the political orientation at the country level.

Our findings reveal important patterns for social justice in diverse societies and schools. First, negative deservingness perceptions strongly predict negative immigration attitudes across Europe, suggesting moral judgments about welfare dependency extend to immigrants—including in schools. Second, country-level political orientation significantly moderates this relationship: the association between deservingness and immigration attitudes is stronger in left-leaning compared to right-leaning countries. This counterintuitive finding suggests that in progressive contexts where welfare support is generally higher (Wulfgramm & Starke, 2017), deservingness considerations play a particularly important role in determining solidarity boundaries.

Patterns vary across European regions: left-leaning countries demonstrate moderate deservingness perceptions with relatively positive immigration attitudes, while right-leaning countries show consistently negative attitudes toward deservingness and immigration. In between are the centrist political countries with more positive deservingness perceptions and immigration attitudes.

However, within left-leaning contexts, individual variations in deservingness perceptions have particularly strong effects, suggesting that conditional solidarity operates powerfully even in progressive environments—with direct implications for how schools address diversity and inclusion.

These patterns reflect a collective factor: individual attitudes are formed within broader social, cultural, and political environments (Bratman, 1999; Anderson, 2006; Bicchieri, 2006). The political context of a country creates conditions that shape how deservingness perceptions translate into immigration attitudes, with significant implications for educational inclusion and equitable migration policies.

This research contributes to Network 07's focus on social justice and intercultural education by illuminating mechanisms of marginalization and exclusion in contemporary Europe and translating insights into actionable implications for school development and educational practice.

Analytical Strategy: To answer our research question (how perceptions of deservingness affect Europeans’ attitudes toward immigration and, whether country-level political orientation moderates this relationship), we conducted multilevel linear regression using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 27 program, accounting for the nested data structure (individuals within countries), modeling both fixed individual-level effects (e.g., deservingness perceptions) and country-level effects (e.g., political orientation), as well as a cross-level interaction between individual deservingness perceptions and country-level political orientation in predicting immigration attitudes. Data Source and Sample: We used the data from Round 8 of the European Social Survey (2016). The European Social Survey employs strict random probability sampling, maintains a minimum 70% target response rate, and uses rigorous translation protocols. Data were collected via face-to-face interviews. Our sample includes 39,400 respondents from 21 countries: Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Iceland, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Slovenia, and the United Kingdom. This diverse sample allows examination across varied welfare regimes, immigration histories, and political contexts influencing educational policy. Dependent Variable: Immigration attitudes were measured through three items assessing immigrants' impacts on (1) economy, (2) cultural life, and (3) overall quality of life. Responses on 0-10 scales were recoded so higher values indicate more negative attitudes. Items were combined into a scale (Cronbach's α = 0.873). Main Independent Variable: Deservingness perceptions were operationalized through four items: (1) social benefits make people lazy, (2) benefits reduce caring, (3) unemployed don't seek work, and (4) people obtain benefits to which they are not entitled. Responses on 1-5 scales were recoded so higher values reflect more negative perceptions (Cronbach's α = 0.743). These perceptions are relevant not only as general social attitudes but also as potential influences on educators' professional judgments. Country-Level Moderator: Political orientation was measured at individual and country levels. Respondents positioned themselves on a 0 (left) to 10 (right) scale. For multilevel modeling, we calculated country means and centered individual values around country means following established procedures (Heck et al., 2014). This distinguishes between individual orientations and broader political context. Control Variables: Following previous research (Eger & Breznau, 2017), we included individual-level controls: gender, age, citizenship, nativity (respondent and mother), education years, household income satisfaction, and employment.

This study demonstrates that immigration attitudes are shaped by individual and contextual factors, with profound implications for social justice and educational equity. Deservingness perceptions predict negative attitudes toward immigrants (Van Oorschot, 2006), potentially manifesting in educational settings through expectations, interactions, and institutional practices. In left-leaning contexts, deservingness perceptions have particularly powerful effects on immigration attitudes, suggesting that even in progressive environments, conditional solidarity limits genuine inclusion (Eger & Kulin, 2022). This has direct implications for schools operating in different political contexts. Central Implications for School Development and Educational Research Addressing Inclusion Barriers in School Development: Negative deservingness perceptions within the broader school community—including parents, peers, and society—can contribute to educational inequality. Students with migration background may face disadvantages through lower expectations, biased interactions, social exclusion, or unequal resource access. School development initiatives should address how these societal attitudes influence educational spaces and create barriers to inclusion, recognizing that schools operate within broader communities where deservingness narratives circulate (Knotz et al., 2022). Promoting Migration-Sensitive School Cultures: Schools should develop comprehensive strategies to counter prejudice and create inclusive environments. This includes fostering intercultural competence across the entire school community, implementing programs that promote solidarity, and creating spaces for critical dialogue about migration and belonging (Banks & Banks, 2019). Institutional measures—diversifying representation, revising curricula to authentically reflect migration experiences, building partnerships with immigrant communities, and implementing anti-discrimination policies (Gay, 2018)—are essential for transforming school cultures beyond individual attitudes. Future Research Directions: Research needs to examine in how far deservingness perceptions influence educational processes and academic outcomes. Research also should consider how political contexts moderate the influence of societal deservingness perceptions on educational environments (Alonso & Fonseca, 2012; Attewell, 2021).

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