Inclusive pedagogy has become a central principle in global and national education agendas, emphasizing the right of all children to participate meaningfully in learning regardless of ability, language background, or socio-economic status (Ainscow et al., 2006). In early childhood education, inclusive pedagogy is particularly critical for literacy acquisition, as early literacy skills form the foundation for later educational success and social participation (Lerkkanen, 2025). Teachers play a pivotal role in translating inclusive policy commitments into classroom practices, as their knowledge, skills, beliefs, and professional experiences shape how inclusion is enacted in daily teaching (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017).
In Tanzania, policy frameworks such as the Education and Training Policy (URT, 2014) and the National Strategy on Inclusive Education (URT, 2021) strongly advocate inclusive education across all levels, including pre-primary education. Despite these commitments, empirical studies indicate that inclusive pedagogy for literacy acquisition remains inconsistently implemented in pre-primary classrooms (Kamanzi et al, 2026; Mligo, 2025; Mlolele et al., 2023;). Challenges include large class sizes, limited teaching resources, multilingual learning environments, and, most importantly, insufficient teacher preparation for inclusive literacy practices (Kabate, 2025; Ndijuye et al.,2020). While existing literature has examined inclusive education broadly (e.g Rugambwa & Thomas, 2013) and early literacy instruction separately (see Ndijuye et al., 2020), there remains limited empirical evidence on how pre-primary teacher training and professional development specifically support inclusive pedagogy for literacy acquisition in this study context Tanzania.
Teacher education is widely recognized as a key mechanism for strengthening inclusive pedagogical practices (Herrera-Seda & Walton, 2025). Pre-service teacher training is expected to provide foundational competencies in child development, early literacy, assessment, and inclusive education, while teachers’ professional development (TPD, e.g. Darling-Hammond et al., 2017) is intended to sustain, deepen, and adapt these competencies over time (Avalos, 2011). However, studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that teacher education programs often remain largely theoretical, with limited opportunities for practical engagement with inclusive literacy strategies (Miles & Singal, 2010). As a result, many teachers report feeling underprepared and lacking confidence in supporting learners with diverse literacy needs (Savolainen et al., 2012).
This study, therefore, examined pre-primary teacher training and professional development as pathways for implementing inclusive pedagogy for literacy acquisition in pre-primary education in Tanzania. The study addressed two research questions:
i. What kind of skills does pre-primary teacher education provide for inclusive literacy acquisition in pre-primary classrooms in Tanzania?
ii. What are teachers’ perceptions of professional development in implementing inclusive pedagogy for literacy acquisition in pre-primary classrooms in Tanzania?
The study was guided by Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) which conceptualizes adult learning as a process of critically examining and transforming existing frames of reference (Mezirow, 2000). TLT is particularly relevant for teacher education, as teachers enter training and professional practice with deeply rooted assumptions shaped by prior schooling, cultural norms, and professional socialization (Illeris, 2014). In the context of inclusive literacy pedagogy, TLT provides a lens for understanding how teacher training and PD may challenge deficit-oriented views of learners, promote reflective practice, and support shifts toward more inclusive and learner-responsive teaching approaches (Taylor, 2017). By applying TLT, this study conceptualizes teacher training and TPD as potential transformative spaces where pre-primary teachers can rethink traditional, whole-class approaches to literacy instruction and adopt inclusive practices such as differentiation, formative assessment, and play-based learning (Zerai et al,. 2023)

In this qualitative study data was gathered in three administrative regions of Tanzania: Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, and Manyara. These regions were selected to capture variation in geographical location, socio-economic conditions, and school contexts, including urban, peri-urban, and rural settings (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). The study involved sixteen pre-primary schools, the majority of which were selected through simple random sampling, with one school purposively selected due to its established inclusive practices. The participants comprised thirty pre-primary teachers and they were selected to ensure representation across different regions and school contexts. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews, which allowed for in-depth exploration of teachers’ experiences, perceptions, and reflections regarding teacher training, their professional development, and inclusive literacy practices (Cohen et al., 2018). Each interview lasted approximately 50 minutes and was conducted in the teachers’ respective schools. The interview guide focused on two core areas: (a) skills acquired through initial teacher training relevant to inclusive literacy instruction, and (b) teachers’ perceptions of professional development in supporting inclusive pedagogy for literacy acquisition. All interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ consent, transcribed verbatim, and translated from Swahili into English. To enhance accuracy and trustworthiness, translations were carefully checked by proficient Swahili and English speaker. Participants were assigned pseudonymous identifiers ( T1–T30) to ensure confidentiality. Data analysis followed a content analysis approach, combining inductive and deductive procedures to identify patterns, categories, and themes across the dataset (Krippendorff, 2018). The analysis involved repeated reading of transcripts, coding of meaning units, and clustering of codes into thematic categories aligned with the research questions. The analytic process was iterative, with constant comparison across cases to enhance credibility and consistency (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

The findings indicate a clear divide among pre-primary teachers regarding the extent to which teacher training and professional development support inclusive pedagogy for literacy acquisition. Many teachers reported that their pre-service training did not adequately prepare them to address learners’ diversity needs. These teachers described relying largely on personal experience and peer support rather than formal training when implementing inclusive literacy practices. At the same time, some teachers reported acquiring inclusive pedagogical skills through teacher training, including awareness of child development, recognition of learner diversity, and the use of varied teaching methods and materials. These accounts suggest that when inclusive concepts are meaningfully integrated into teacher education, they can support more responsive literacy instruction. However, even among these teachers, practical application of inclusive strategies was often limited. Teachers’ perceptions of professional development highlighted widespread dissatisfaction with the availability, relevance, and depth of TPD opportunities. Most teachers reported limited access to TPD focused specifically on inclusive pedagogy for literacy acquisition, with existing training often described as short-term, theoretical, or unrelated to classroom realities. On the other hand, from a transformative learning perspective, the findings suggest that both teacher training and TPD have not consistently functioned as transformative spaces capable of challenging entrenched beliefs and practices related to literacy instruction. While some evidence of perspective shifts was identified, particularly among teachers with access to relevant training, systemic gaps in teacher education structures continue to constrain the realization of inclusive literacy pedagogy in pre-primary classrooms. This study calls on the government to review teacher education by making inclusive education part of the teacher education curriculum, and to provide strong, sustained, practical, and need-based professional development focused on inclusive pedagogy, and to support learning communities to compensate for the limited formal professional development in inclusive pedagogy for equitable literacy learning in Tanzania and beyond.

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