Teacher achievement expectations have been shown to predict student achievement in subjects such as mathematics and German, well known as Pygmalion-effect (Wang et al., 2018). Teacher achievement expectations are self-fulfilling, i.e., teacher expectations influence the verbal and nonverbal teacher feedback to students, who perceive it and try to behave according to these expectations. Research has shown that teacher achievement expectations are biased (Wang et al., 2018). Teachers underestimate achievement in mathematics and German of students with diverse needs such as with low socio-economic status (SES) and with migration backgrounds (MB), because these students are less adjusted to the classroom norms (Dittmann-Domenichini, 2014). Teacher achievement expectations have been shown to mediate the effects of SES and MB on student achievement in mathematics and German (Neuenschwander & Niederbacher, 2021). Thus, teacher achievement expectations play a major role in explaining why SES and MB are associated with student achievement (educational inequality in school). Less is known about the extent to which teacher achievement expectations explain the effects of social processes in classrooms on student academic achievement.

Farmer et al.’s (2019) correlated constraint model describes how social processes in classrooms can foster the social inclusion of students with diverse needs (i.e., MB and low SES). It describes how teacher-student-relationship (TSR) and student social functioning, such as prosocial behavior, are interrelated and explain academic functioning (i.e., academic achievement). Meta-analyses have reported positive correlations between TSR and academic achievement (Emslander et al., 2026). Enlarging Farmer et al. (2019), positive TSR could lead to benevolent teacher achievement expectations and thus, teachers encourage students to increase their achievement. Timmermans et al. (2019) reported positive correlations between positive TSR and teacher achievement expectations. Less is known about whether teacher achievement expectations mediate the effects of TSR on student academic achievement. However, there is evidence that student MB is negatively, and SES is positively associated with close TSR (Arachambault et al., 2024).

In Farmer et al.’s (2019) model prosocial behavior is an aspect of social functioning on individual level, that is interrelated with academic functioning. Prosocial behavior is an aspect of other-oriented social competence and includes behaviors such as helping (Perren et al. 2012). Farmer et al.’s (2019) assume interrelations between concepts on individual level (prosocial behavior) and on group levels (TSR). Teachers appreciate student prosocial behavior (Longobard et al., 2021). Thus, students’ prosocial behavior is positively connected with positive TSR (closeness, no conflict) (Longobard et al., 2021). Caprara et al. (2019) also reported positive correlations between student prosocial behavior and academic achievement. Enlarging Farmer et al. (2019), teachers who positively evaluate students’ prosocial behavior could potentially hold benevolent achievement expectations (Longobard et al., 2021). Wang et al. (2018) reported positive correlations between prosocial student attitudes and teacher achievement expectations. Such benevolent expectations can turn into motivating students to increase their achievement. However, research also shows that student MB is negatively, and SES is positively associated with student prosocial behavior (Cirimele et al., 2024).

The following research question will be examined: to what extent do teacher achievement expectations mediate the effects of student MB and low SES as well as TSR (conflict and closeness) and student prosocial behavior on student achievement in mathematics and school language (German).

We hypothesize that teacher achievement expectations mediate (1) the negative effects of low SES and MB on student achievement in mathematics and German and 2) the positive effects of TSR (closeness, few conflicts) and student prosocial behavior on achievement in mathematics and German.

Sample The hypotheses were tested using a sample of N = 940 Students from 60 classes (mean age = 8.2, mean HISEI = 61.2, 30.5% have MB). Students were in 1st class (N = 100), 2nd class (N = 268), 3rd class (N = 291) or 4th class (N = 255). Schools and classes were randomly selected from the seven preselected German speaking Swiss cantons and contacted. At the beginning and the end of the school year, students, their parents, and teachers completed questionnaires. Most students participated at both measurement points (N = 755; 80.3%). A subset of students dropped out after the first measurement point (t1) (N = 33; 3.5%). No significant differences be-tween dropouts and participants in both waves were observed in any of the examined variables. Instruments Teacher questionnaire: Teachers reported their relationship towards students on the conflict scale with 3 items (Pianta, 2001, Ω =.81). Teacher expectations were measured using a single item for achievement in each subject, mathematics and German, for each student in their class (Neuenschwander & Niederbacher, 2021). Student questionnaire: Students reported their relationship to their teacher (closeness) with 3 items (Rauer & Schuck, 2003; Ω=.78). Students’ prosocial behavior was measured using peer ratings. Students were asked to rate four classmates with an item on prosocial behavior, based on the SOCOMP instrument (Perren et al., 2012). MB was assessed with the nationalities of the parents. Students were counted as having MB if at least one parent had a foreign nationality. Parent questionnaire: Students’ SES was assessed with the parents’ current occupations. Oc-cupations were coded with the International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status (ISEI) 2008 and transformed to a HISEI value. Achievement tests: Students filled out curriculum validated and reliable achievement tests for mathematics in each grade at the beginning (t1) and the end of the school year (t2). Reading competence in the school language German was assessed using a standardized test at t1 and t2. Analytical procedure Missing data was assumed to be missing at random. It was imputed 20 times using MPlus 9. The hypotheses were tested using two structural equation modellings (SEM), calculated with Mplus 9. One model includes achievement in mathematics, the second model is the same but replaces mathematics with German. In both models, achievement was measured at t2 after con-trolling for achievement at t1. Significant indirect effects indicate mediation processes.

In line with the hypotheses, findings from a first SEM (achievement in mathematics) with a good model fit showed significant indirect effects from SES via teacher expectations in mathematics on achievement in mathematics. In addition, TSR (conflict in teacher perspective) and prosocial behavior indirectly predicted achievement in mathematics via teacher expectations. TSR (close-ness in student perspective) did not predict teacher expectations. There were significant nega-tive correlations between SES and TSR (conflict) and positive correlations between SES and prosocial behavior. MB correlated negatively with prosocial behavior. In the second SEM (German) with a good model fit, the same effects were found. In contrast to the model with mathematics, the indirect effect of MB on achievement in German via teacher expectations in German was also significant. To conclude, teacher achievement expectations explain the association between SES and MB as well as TSR and student prosocial behavior on student achievement in mathematics and German (mediations). Enlarging Farmer et al. (2019), teacher achievement expectations play a role in explaining the multilevel interrelations between social functioning in classrooms, TSR, and academic functioning in primary school. Students with diverse needs who have lower TSR and prosocial behavior are at risk of lower teacher achievement expectations and lower achievement. Teachers who reflect their achievement expectations can counterbalance effects of low SES and MB as well as from low TSR and low prosocial behavior on student achievement and thus foster inclusion. Students in teacher education and teachers working in schools should be sensitive to the role of teacher achievement expectations and need to reflect on how to foster inclusion.

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