Educational inequity remains a persistent challenge even in high-performing and equity-oriented education systems such as those in the Nordic countries. Socioeconomic status continues to be one of the strongest predictors of student achievement, including in mathematics (Sirin, 2005; OECD, 2024). However, some disadvantaged students demonstrate high levels of academic achievement despite structural constraints, a phenomenon conceptualised as academic resilience (Masten, 2001; Rutter, 2012)

Previous research indicates that both teaching practices and school climate play crucial roles in shaping students’ learning opportunities and outcomes. Teaching practices that emphasise cognitive activation, feedback, and structured instruction have been associated with improved achievement and equity (OECD, 2019). Similarly, positive school climates characterised by supportive relationships, safety, and a sense of belonging are linked to higher academic engagement and performance (Thapa et al., 2013; Wang & Degol, 2016).

Despite growing evidence, less is known about how teaching practices and school climate jointly support disadvantaged students in Nordic contexts, particularly in mathematics. Using PISA 2022 data, this study addresses this gap by examining how pedagogical and institutional factors contribute to the academic resilience of disadvantaged students in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden.

The study aims to identify key pedagogical and school-level factors that support disadvantaged students’ academic success. Specifically, it seeks to analyse patterns of teaching practices and school climate in Nordic schools, examine their relationships with disadvantaged students’ achievement in mathematics, and compare cross-national similarities and differences. By doing so, the study contributes to ongoing discussions on educational equity and resilience in comparative education.

The research questions of the study are as follows:

(1)    How are mathematics teacher behaviours in mathematics and science associated with the achievement of disadvantaged students in Nordic countries?

(2)    How does school climate relate to academic resilience among disadvantaged students?

(3)    How do mathematics teacher behaviours and school climate interact in supporting disadvantaged students across Nordic education systems?

The study uses quantitative secondary analysis of PISA 2022 data from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. PISA provides internationally comparable measures of student achievement in mathematics, as well as contextual information on mathematics teacher behaviours and school climate (OECD, 2023). Disadvantaged students are identified using the PISA index of economic, social, and cultural status (ESCS), operationalised as students in the lowest quartile of the national ESCS distribution. Student achievement in mathematics serves as the primary outcome variable; high performance is defined as students in the highest quartile of mathematics performance. Academically resilient students in mathematics refer to disadvantaged students who are high performers. Independent variables include indices of mathematics teacher behaviours and school culture and climate derived from student questionnaires. Mathematics teacher behaviours are measured through indices such as student perceived quality of mathematics instruction, disciplinary climate in mathematics, and cognitive activation in mathematics. School culture and climate are operationalised through measures of teacher-student relationships, mathematics teacher support, student sense of belonging to school, being bullied, feeling safe and school safety risks. The analytical strategy consists of three stages. First, descriptive analyses are conducted to examine patterns of disadvantage, mathematics teacher behaviours, and school climate across Nordic countries. Second, multilevel regression models are applied to investigate relationships between mathematics teacher behaviours, school climate, and disadvantaged students’ achievement, controlling for student- and school-level variables. Third, interaction effects are tested to explore whether the influence of mathematics teacher behaviours varies depending on school climate conditions. All analyses will take PISA sampling weights and plausible values into consideration to ensure robust estimates (OECD, 2023). This approach enables both cross-national comparison and a deeper understanding of the mechanisms supporting academic resilience among disadvantaged students.

The study is expected to demonstrate that mathematics teacher behaviours and school climate are significant predictors of disadvantaged students’ achievement in mathematics and science in Nordic countries. Consistent with prior research, cognitively activating mathematics teacher behaviours and structured instructional approaches are found to be positively associated with academic performance and resilience (OECD, 2019). Furthermore, supportive school climates characterised by strong teacher support, positive disciplinary environments, and a sense of belonging are expected to be linked to higher levels of academic resilience among disadvantaged students (Thapa et al., 2013; Wang & Degol, 2016). Cross-national analyses are likely to reveal both shared patterns and contextual differences across Nordic education systems, reflecting variations in pedagogical traditions and institutional arrangements. The interaction analysis is expected to show that the effectiveness of mathematics teacher behaviours is enhanced in schools with positive climates, suggesting that pedagogical and institutional factors operate synergistically. These findings will extend resilience theory by demonstrating how school-level and classroom-level factors jointly mitigate socioeconomic disadvantage (Rutter, 2012; Zimmerman, 2013). The study will contribute to comparative education research by providing empirical evidence from Nordic contexts, which are often regarded as models of equity. Practically, the findings will offer insights for policymakers, school leaders, and teachers seeking to design more inclusive learning environments and strengthen support for disadvantaged students in mathematics and science.

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