School performance data can support school improvement efforts, yet data-informed decision-making is inherently complex and fundamentally interpretative. School leaders and teachers engage in sensemaking by transforming raw data into meaningful information and actionable knowledge. Central to this process are attributions: potential causes professionals construct for school performance outcomes. Characterising an attribution solely as internal or external is insufficient to meaningfully influence school leaders’ and teachers’ behaviour, as it does not adequately account for the factors that determine their subsequent actions. It is crucial that educational professionals reflect on their role in exercising control over causes for school performance. In response to the lack of a multidimensional view on these attributions in the literature on data use, this study integrates the dimensions of locus of causality (internal versus external) and controllability (controllable versus uncontrollable). Accordingly, we address the following research questions: RQ1. To which internal/external and controllable/uncontrollable factors do school leaders and teachers attribute school performance on central tests? Do these attributions differ based by work role? RQ2. Do attributions on central tests vary depending on the type of norm-referenced perspective applied (group referenced versus school referenced)? Do these attributions differ based on the school’s performance level? Data were collected through 24 semi-structured interviews. A framework analysis was applied, using iterative open and axial coding to identify and refine thematic categories. To enhance reliability, one-third of all coded fragments underwent double coding. To explore trends and differences within and across attributions, categories and perspectives, frequency counts were used to ‘quantitize’ the qualitative data. Our findings demonstrate that norm-referenced perspectives meaningfully shape the attribution processes of school leaders and teachers. External attributions dominate, although internal factors were recognised as well, particularly at the teaching and school practice levels. Additionally, controllability emerged as a key factor for follow-up actions decisions. Furthermore, examination of attrbutional differences between population-referenced and group-referenced perspectives reveals that the latter tend to foster internal and external controllable attributions. Thus, the chosen norm-referenced perspective not only directs the locus of causality but also, and perhaps even more importantly, perceptions of controllability and agency. By adopting this specific focus, this study contributes to the broader discourse on data-informed decision for school improvement both theoretically and practically. It suggests that consciously emphasizing controllable attributions, schools can more effectively translate school performance data into targeted, informed school improvement efforts.

Schildkamp, K. (2019). Data-based decision making for school improvement: Research insights and gaps. Educational Research, 61, 257-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2019.1625716.