Gender inequality remains a persistent challenge in European Vocational Education and Training (VET) systems, with implications for both social inclusion and economic growth. Policy frameworks such as the European Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025 and 2026–2030 (pending approval)and the Herning Declaration on attractive and inclusive Vocational Education and Training (VET) for increased competitiveness and quality jobs 2026-2030 prioritize gender equality and call for targeted measures to reduce educational and occupational segregation (European Commission, n.d., 2026).

Over the past two decades, Dual VET—combining classroom instruction with structured workplace learning as an integral part of the curriculum—has gained prominence within European policy agendas. The European Alliance for Apprenticeships (since 2013) have promoted cooperation among employers, trade unions, and public authorities to enhance apprenticeship quality and labor market outcomes (Cedefop, 2025; Consejo Económico y Social, 2023).

In the EU, Dual VET is widely regarded as a key instrument for reducing early school leaving and improving employability and labor market integration. However, Dual VET systems channel learners into gender-stereotyped pathways and reinforcing both vertical and horizontal segregation in education and the workplace, thereby reproducing labor-market inequalities (Beckmann, 2025; Smyth & Steinmetz, 2015).

Recent Spanish law on VET (Organic Law 3/2022) universalizes Dual modality across all programs, with full implementation planned by 2028. It differentiates between general Dual programs (that allocate 20–35% of training to workplace learning, usually beginning after the first three months, with companies contributing up to 20% of curricular learning outcomes) and intensive (exceeding 35% workplace training, are typically linked to a formal training contract, and grant companies responsibility for approximately 30% of learning outcomes) (Ley 3/2022, 2022).

Despite the scope of this reform, research on Dual VET in Spain remains in an initial state, with limited research and fragmented data. This underscores the need to strengthen statistical systems and evidence-based monitoring. Moreover, existing studies rarely differentiate analytically between general and intensive dual programs, thereby limiting assessments of their respective effects on gender equity (Consejo Económico y Social, 2023; Mora et al., 2024; Navajas & Roldán-Casas, 2025).

Early data in Spain associate Dual VET with improved academic performance and graduation. Although female participation in VET has increased, this trend mainly reflects overall system growth rather than genuine desegregation, as gendered educational choices remain structurally embedded. Policy and institutional analyses highlight that disparities in sectoral development, gendered access to training opportunities, and insufficient gender mainstreaming may reinforce occupational segregation, particularly affecting women (Maldonado et al., 2021; Consejo Económico y Social, 2023; Mora et al., 2024; Quintana-Murci et al., 2025; Sánchez et al., 2025; Cedefop & State Foundation for Training in Employment, 2023).

Given the need for a deeper understanding of gender dynamics in Dual VET in Spain, this study is guided by the following research questions: 1) How is participation in Dual VET in Spain distributed by gender and by modality (general or intensive)?; 2) Are there gender differences in participation according to the program?

This study has three main objectives: 1) Provide an initial descriptive overview of gender-related patterns in participation in Dual VET in Spain; 2) Examine gender differences in participation across programs, geographical contexts, enrolment volumes, occupational groups, training levels, and completion or dropout outcomes in Dual VET; 3) Generate recommendations for improving gender equality in general and intensive Dual VET programs in Spain.

This paper is part of the R&D&I project Completion and dropout pathways in intensive Dual vocational training: empirical approach and recommendations (PID2023-149074OB-I00) founded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and FEDER, EU.

Study design This study employs a quantitative descriptive research design to examine gender participation patterns in Dual VET in Spain. This approach is suitable as an initial empirical exploration of a relatively under-researched area, without aiming to establish causal relationships or explanatory mechanisms. Data sources The analysis is based on secondary aggregated statistical data drawn from two key institutional sources for Dual VET in Spain: the Ministry of Education, Vocational Training and Sports and CaixaBank Dualiza. The period analysed covers 2020-2024 academic years, selected due to the availability of comparable data across both sources and its relevance to the recent consolidation of Dual VET within the Spanish education system. Unit of analysis and variables The unit of analysis comprises students enrolled in Dual VET programmes during 2020-2024 academic years, as defined by Organic Law 3/2022. As part of the available data on Dual predates the 2022 reform, these data are used as a proxy for intensive Dual VET, while data from general VET programs are used to approximate general Dual VET. This strategy is justified by the continuity of core program characteristics and the absence of fully consolidated post-reform data. Accordingly, the findings should be interpreted as indicative of structural patterns rather than definitive post-reform effects. The analysis focuses on gender, enrolment volume, geographical distribution, professional families, training level, and outcomes measured through completion and dropout rates. Data analysis Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques, with Microsoft Excel as the primary analytical tool, given the aggregated nature of the data and the exploration purpose of the study. The analysis includes calculations of absolute and relative frequencies, percentages, gender participation ratios, and descriptive comparisons across categories. Tables and graphical representations were produced to facilitate the visualization of gendered participation patterns. Prior to analysis, a process of data review and harmonization ensured consistency in variable definitions across sources. Ethical considerations and limitations The study relies exclusively on publicly available, anonymous and aggregated data. Gender differences are interpreted as aggregated participation patterns shaped by institutional and structural contexts. The descriptive design and use of aggregated data limit causal analysis and the examination of individual trajectories or socio-economic factors. Nonetheless, the study provides a robust empirical basis for future feminist and gender-focused research and policy discussions on equity in Dual VET. The statistical sources record gender as a binary variable, which limits the analysis of non-binary gender identities.

Dual VET in Spain reproduces—and in some dimensions reinforces—structural gender inequalities already present in the education and labor systems. Despite its expansion as a policy priority, intensive Dual VET remains a marginal pathway within Spanish VET. Women are systematically underrepresented compared to men across all Dual VET programs, with particularly low participation in intensive Dual VET. Gender disparities are not only national but also territorial, as most regions fail to meet the 40/60% gender parity benchmark. Age-related patterns further reveal gendered trajectories. Male participation in Dual VET—both in general and intensive—is predominantly concentrated at younger ages, whereas women’s participation is more fragmented and tends to increase at later life stages. This suggests that for women, Dual VET functions less as a linear educational pathway and more as a mechanism of re-entry, reskilling, or adaptation to segmented and precarious labor markets. The partial reduction of the gender gap at higher educational levels (ISCED 5) contrasts sharply with the strong male concentration in basic (ISCED 2) and intermediate (ISCED 3) Dual VET. This vertical segregation is compounded by persistent horizontal segregation: women are disproportionately channeled into feminized professional families linked to care, personal services, and health, while men dominate industrial, technical, and construction-related fields. Crucially, the professional sectors with the highest availability of company-based training contracts—those associated with intensive Dual VET—remain highly masculinized, thereby limiting women’s access to the most valued forms of work-based learning. Despite these structural barriers, women consistently display higher completion rates across all educational levels, revealing an efficiency paradox that current policies fail to address. Taken together, these findings underscore the need for targeted, gender-responsive policies in Dual VET, including proactive regional planning, stronger regulation of company participation, gender-sensitive guidance, and accountability mechanisms aimed at disrupting entrenched patterns of gender segregation.

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