Executive functions (EF) can be defined as cognitive processes necessary for goal-directed cognition and behaviour (Best & Miller, 2010), and involve partially dissociable components: inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory (Diamond, 2013). Self-regulation (SR) is a broad term describing a set of processes enabling control and regulation of attention, emotions and behaviour (Nigg, 2017). These, otherwise interchangeable and highly overlapping terms, are used depending on the scientific domain, with EF more often referred to in cognitive psychology and SR – in social and personality psychology literature (Hofmann, Schmeichel, & Baddeley, 2012). EF/SR skills are fundamental for children’s learning, school functioning and academic achievement (for reviews see Pascual, Muñoz, & Robres, 2019; McClelland & Cameron, 2011). EF/SR skills are associated with better school adjustment, as seen in measures of academic ability (Cantin, Gnaedinger, Gallaway, Hesson-McInnis, & Hund, 2016; Mägi, Männamaa, & Kikas, 2016) and teachers’ perceptions of readiness for learning (Bierman, Nix, Greenberg, Blair, & Domitrovich, 2008; Shaul & Schwartz, 2014). While deficits in EF/SR skills have shown to adversely affect school success, further cognitive and social development, and often lead to behavioural problems (Morgan et al., 2018; Lonigan et al., 2017). Core EF/SR skills rapidly develop in preschool (Hughes, 1998), and continue to develop throughout childhood (Davidson, Amso, Crues Anderson, & Diamond, 2006), mirroring the developmental changes in brain structures, such as maturation of prefrontal cortex (Shanmugan & Satterthwaite, 2017; Zelazo & Carlson, 2012). However, in general, EF/SR fail to develop to its full potential if the contextual stimulation is not adequately presented (e.g., Talwar, Carlson, & Lee, 2011). Taken into account results from both behavioural and neuroimaging studies, (early and middle) childhood appears to be a period of high plasticity sensitive to developmental and environmental influences (Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017).

Recent research on EF/SR development has shifted towards malleable environmental factors. Within this line of research, most studies have focused on parent-child interaction and home setting, and have shown that positive interactions can promote the quality of EF/SR (e.g., Rhoades, Greenberg, Lanza, & Blair, 2011). In order to efficiently add to the parenting effect, researchers have shifted their attention to the role of school and classroom environment as an important developmental context for promoting children’s EF/SR skills and, in turn, their cognition and behaviour (de Wilde, Koot, & van Lier, 2016). Numerous observational studies have shown a correlation between the quality of teacher-student relationship or interaction (TSI) at the dyadic (i.e., closeness, conflict, and autonomy) or at the classroom level (i.e., emotional, organisational, and behavioural support) and children’s EF/SR skills (Hamre, Hatfield, Pianta, & Jamil, 2014; Goble, Sandilos, & Pianta, 2019). In order to explore this association further and to provide more insight, the objective of this paper is to examine the causal effect of interventions that aim to improve teacher-student interaction in order to strengthen children’s EF/SR skills.

We performed a literature search of articles using Web of Science database with a focus on terms referring to 1) executive function and self-regulation, 2) preschool and primary school, 3) teacher-student interaction or relationship, and 4) intervention. All English-language articles published before January 2021 were included. The searches resulted in 2,096 unique articles. These articles were then included or excluded based on the abstract and on the full-text reading. Studies included aimed at improving EF (or its distinct components) and/or SR (or its distinct components) of either preschool or primary school children in regular education by implementing an intervention administered by teachers. An additional focus was placed on intentional manipulation of teacher-student relationship at the dyadic and/or classroom level. Of all the articles, 12 met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed. Backward and forward reference check for relevant papers was performed. By the time of the conference, these searches will be rerun in two additional databases: PubMed and ERIC for other possibly relevant articles not included in the Web of Science database.

Four of the included studies recruited preschool children and eight recruited primary school children. Five articles focused on EF (one of which in preschool children), six on SR (two of which in preschool children), and one assessed both concepts in preschool children. Out of the included interventions, seven have directly focused on TSI and measured its effect on children’s EF/SR; other studies measured children’s social/communication skills and teacher-student relationship as predicting or as secondary outcome variables. Generally, the results indicate that children in the intervention groups showed higher gains in EF/SR compared to controls. Somewhat surprisingly, there seems to be a better overall performance in older children when compared to the younger children (within primary school). Most importantly, the findings show largest effects of interventions in those performing most poorly at baseline, suggesting that the cognitive deficits can be minimised if children are supported appropriately. Once the additional searches are finalised, the effect sizes will be determined for each of these literature findings. This article intends to be the first systematic review of the interventions used for improving children’s EF/SR with an added focus to the teacher-child relationship. Preliminary indications suggest positive associations between TSI and EF/SR development. Given the limited number of studies conducted, it is difficult to dissect which specific intervention (components) lead to best overall outcomes and most effectively impact children's performance and development, especially important for those experiencing particular challenges and difficulties. This review informs and highlights the need for more research (and interventions) explicitly investigating TSI and its predictive value on EF/SR in children. It aims to provide information as to which specific aspects of teacher-student relationship need to be examined more closely; hopefully, instructing further development and implementation of lenient and effective interventions in education.

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