The concept of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) refers to the intention to speak or to remain silent given free choice (MacIntyre, 2007) . Originally, it was associated with speaking in one’s first language, but in the 1990s, it was applied to second language communication. And the concept was refined to denote a language learner’s willingness to use the target language to communicate with a certain person at a certain time (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1998)
WTC in second language (L2) is conceptualized as a dynamic state of communicative readiness (Zarrinabadi & Tanbakooei, 2016). For example, MacIntyre et al., (1998) developed a pyramid WTC model that integrates various layers of variables, including communication behavior, behavioral intention, situated antecedents, motivational propensities, affective-cognitive context, and social and individual context.
The complex interrelationship of variables affecting WTC construction in L2 can be categorized into six different levels. The variables from the upper three layers, communication behavior, behavioral intention, and situated antecedents, have a temporary and changeable influence on students' willingness to communicate.
Motivation can be categorized into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is characterized by a sense of enjoyment and satisfaction associated with an activity, for example, students enjoy the process of language learning and feel a sense of satisfaction in acquiring new skills. It is based on the belief that interpersonal interactions and social environments can fulfill fundamental psychological needs, allowing individuals to develop growth-oriented tendencies such as internalization and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2012; Noels, 2009).
Conversely, extrinsic motivation pertains to behaviors that are performed for reasons other than the inherent satisfaction they provide (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Within Self-Determination Theory, four primary subtypes of extrinsic motivation have been identified: external regulation, involving behaviors motivated by external rewards or punishments; introjected regulation, where behavior is governed by internal rewards like self-esteem for success; identified regulation, characterized by a person’s endorsement of an activity’s value, leading to a higher willingness to act; and integrated regulation, where an individual not only sees the value in the activity but also aligns it with their other values.

While willingness to communicate (WTC) is widely acknowledged as a significant contributor to language achievement, its potential in the context of reading performance among immigrant students remains underexplored. However, it is less explored in scenarios such as learning the language through immersion in a country where the language is spoken. Besides, research has traditionally focused on WTC’s impact in oral communication scenarios, leaving a gap in our understanding of how it influences reading achievement.
Motivation (MOT) is a well-established driver of academic success, acting as the fuel that powers students’ efforts to overcome challenges and achieve their educational goals. In the study of language learning, MOT’s role is particularly pronounced, influencing not only the desire to learn but also the persistence in overcoming barriers. The inclusion of MOT alongside WTC in this research acknowledges the complex interplay between a student’s desire to communicate and their underlying motivational drives. Understanding how WTC mediates the relationship between MOT and reading performance could unveil new pathways to enhancing immigrant students’ academic outcomes, spotlighting the need for educational strategies that nurture both motivation and communication willingness.

The data I used is from the 2018 administration of PISA. The OECD conducted PISA every three years, which is a global assessment of 15-year-olds’ educational performance. In the PISA, participants needs to take tests including reading, science, and mathematics, and a half-hour background questionnaire. I used data from 2018, as it is the most recent cyclefocusing on the subject of reading and the background questionnaire includes accurate interest in my research questions.The main focus of the key outcome in this research is student’s PISA reading scores. During the PISA test, students receive a booklet containing a selected subset of the total exam materials. By analysing student’s answer to the background questionnaires and PISA test results, student’s existing abilities shown in reading would be estimated by one-parameter item response model used by the survey organisers. Aiming at reflecting researchers’ uncertainty in students’ original proficiencies in each subject, 10 ‘plausible values’ are selected from every student. So, in this article, 10 plausible values are employed consistently as recommended practice. Each model is calculated 10 times, during which each credible value is used for once. Then, the parameter estimates and standard errors are combined and pooled according to ‘Rubin’s rules’ (Rubin, 1987).

As part of a broader project dedicated to examining long-term trends, the current investigation utilizes data collected from Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, and Singapore. These countries participated in the reading tests administered as part of the PISA 2018 assessment. The findings of the analysis reveal that the reading proficiency of immigrant students is influenced by both their willingness to communicate and motivation. Notably, New Zealand demonstrates the strongest correlation with willingness to communicate, while Singapore exhibits the strongest association with motivation. Furthermore, willingness to communicate is identified as mediating the relationship between motivation and reading proficiency across all economies. Despite variations in motivation and family socio-economic status, no distinct cultural trend is evident across these economies. This research can provide insights into how fostering immigrant student’s Willingness to Communicate support student’s reading proficiency and reading performance, thus helping them to better integrate into the society with different culture and linguistic background.

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