Initial teacher education in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences (PASS) is currently experiencing significant tensions and transformations, driven by processes of digitalisation, the globalisation of knowledge, and the growing influence of informal learning environments. Within the European context, these transformations have been acknowledged in the frameworks of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), as well as in policy documents issued by the European Commission and the OECD, which emphasise the need to educate teachers capable of autonomous learning, critical thinking, and evidence-informed professional decision-making in complex educational contexts (European Commission, 2018; OECD, 2019).

In the specific field of PASS teacher education, international research has highlighted that university students often reproduce learning models characterised by dependence on the content provided by lecturers. This tendency limits the development of key professional competencies such as autonomy, critical reflection, and the capacity for continuous professional updating (Casey & MacPhail, 2018). This issue is particularly relevant in Physical Education, where professional knowledge is constructed at the intersection of scientific evidence, embodied experiences, sociocultural discourses, and professional practices.

From a European perspective, professional autonomy is regarded as a central component of teacher quality. European frameworks for teacher competence stress the importance of preparing teachers who are able to manage their own learning processes, critically engage with educational research, and adapt their practices to diverse contexts (European Commission, 2013). In this regard, theories of self-regulated learning provide a conceptual basis for understanding how future teachers in PASS develop the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning processes (Zimmerman, 2002). These competencies align closely with the principle of lifelong learning underpinning European education policy.

Critical thinking represents another fundamental pillar of professional knowledge in PASS teacher education. Beyond technical or methodological proficiency, educating critically minded teachers involves fostering the ability to question dominant discourses related to the body, health, performance, and physical activity, as well as to assess the validity and relevance of the information informing pedagogical decision-making (Kirk, 2010; Biesta, 2015). From this standpoint, teacher education cannot be reduced to content transmission but should instead promote processes of analysis, comparison, and reflection on the sources of knowledge shaping future teachers’ professional beliefs.

The expansion of digital environments, and social media platforms in particular, poses a specific challenge for PASS teacher education. Platforms such as YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok have become common sources of information related to training, health, the body, and movement, exerting a considerable influence on university students’ understandings and beliefs (Lupton, 2020). Recent European research indicates that these informal environments play a significant role in shaping professional conceptions, often without sufficient critical evaluation of scientific evidence or commercial intentions underlying such content (Goodyear et al., 2019).

From a research perspective in teacher education, this phenomenon cannot be addressed solely as a didactic issue but rather points to broader dimensions related to teacher education and the theoretical foundations of professional knowledge. Critical digital literacy and the ability to evaluate information from both formal and informal learning environments therefore emerge as essential professional competencies for Physical Education teachers in Europe (Redecker, 2017). Integrating these dimensions into initial teacher education requires acknowledging that professional knowledge is constructed across multiple spaces and that future teachers must develop frameworks to negotiate, select, and legitimise diverse sources of information.

The aim of this study is to examine the development of autonomy and critical thinking in initial teacher education in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, contributing to a European research agenda focused on strengthening reflective, evidence-informed, and socially responsible teacher education in digitally mediated contexts.

This study adopts a mixed-methods, cross-sectional design aimed at exploring key dimensions of initial teacher education in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences (PASS), focusing on student autonomy, critical thinking, and engagement with digital technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI). The combination of quantitative and qualitative data enables a comprehensive analysis of future teachers’ learning practices and reflective processes in digitally mediated contexts. Participants were undergraduate students enrolled in PASS teacher education programmes at university level. Students from different academic years participated, allowing for variability in training stage and prior exposure to academic and digital learning environments. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and ethical principles related to informed consent, confidentiality, and data protection were respected. Data were collected using an ad hoc questionnaire entitled Development of Student Autonomy, Critical Thinking, and Use of Artificial Intelligence in the Digital Era. The instrument was designed specifically for initial teacher education and informed by European frameworks on key competences, digital competence, and lifelong learning (European Commission, 2018; Redecker, 2017). The questionnaire is structured into seven sections: (1) general information and frequency of digital tool use; (2) learning autonomy and self-regulation; (3) use of digital tools and access to academic information; (4) critical thinking and criteria for evaluating online information; (5) critical evaluation of social media and influencers related to health, sport, and physical education; (6) open-ended questions addressing reflective comparisons between scientific and social media–based learning; and (7) use of AI tools, including frequency, purposes, perceived reliability, verification strategies, and perceived risks. The instrument includes Likert-scale items, multiple-choice questions, and open-ended responses, allowing for both quantitative and qualitative analysis of students’ perceptions, practices, and beliefs regarding learning and information selection. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical procedures to examine relationships between autonomy, critical thinking, and digital practices. Qualitative data from open-ended questions were analysed through thematic content analysis, enabling the identification of recurring patterns and critical perspectives related to professional learning in digital environments.

The results highlight both strengths and challenges in the initial teacher education of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences (PASS) students regarding autonomy, critical thinking, and digital learning. Participants report frequent use of digital tools and generally perceive themselves as capable of managing their own learning. However, this perceived autonomy coexists with a strong reliance on easily accessible resources, such as search engines, videos, and social media, while the use of academic databases appears less consolidated. Although students clearly distinguish between the credibility of scientific articles and social media content, informal digital environments continue to play a relevant role in their learning processes. Many participants report applying verification strategies, such as contrasting information with academic sources or consulting lecturers, yet these practices are not consistently applied, indicating uneven development of critical digital literacy. The use of artificial intelligence tools is widespread and mainly oriented towards supportive academic functions, including summarising texts, generating ideas, and resolving doubts. Students generally express moderate trust in AI-generated information and frequently describe cautious approaches, such as using AI as a starting point or comparing outputs with academic sources. At the same time, concerns emerge regarding overreliance on AI, reduced cognitive effort, and diminished critical reflection. Overall, the findings suggest that initial PASS teacher education must move beyond promoting access to digital technologies towards explicitly fostering autonomy and critical thinking as core dimensions of professional knowledge. Addressing how future teachers evaluate, select, and legitimise information across formal, informal, and AI-mediated environments is essential for preparing reflective and autonomous professionals capable of responding to complex educational contexts in contemporary European societies.

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