This study examines the relationship between teacher characteristics and student reading outcomes using data from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2021. PIRLS provides comprehensive information on fourth‑grade students’ reading literacy, enriched with contextual data. For this study, 14 European Union member states were selected. The study focuses on differences between beginning and experienced teachers in terms of initial teacher training (ITT), professional development (PD) participation, and their associations with student outcomes.

The research is guided by four central questions: (1) How do teacher characteristics (education level and years of experience) vary across 14 EU countries? (2) How does participation in reading-related PD activities differ by teacher experience and education level? (3) How are teacher characteristics and reading-related PD participation associated with student reading outcomes at the international level? (4) How do these associations manifest at the individual level in two example countries, Finland and Spain?

The objective of this study is twofold. First, it aims to provide comparative insights into teacher qualifications and PD participation across European contexts, highlighting differences between countries as well as beginning and experienced teachers. Second, it seeks to explore whether these teacher characteristics are linked to student reading outcomes (reading achievement, confidence, and interest) internationally and then using regression analyses within two national contexts with different backgrounds to provide insight to the relationship of teacher background and student outcomes.

The Bologna Process has contributed to harmonization of teacher education across Europe (Esteves, 2017), yet ITT still varies considerably. PD is recognized as a cornerstone of teacher competence development, though practices differ widely across countries (Darling‑Hammond et al., 2017; Normand et al., 2018). Effective PD is characterized by relevance, collaboration, sufficient duration, and evaluation of impact (Creemers et al., 2012), but implementation and institutional support remain uneven (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021). According to the TALIS study (OECD, 2019), beginning teachers generally report lower confidence in their teaching abilities compared to experienced colleagues, particularly in classroom management and the use of diverse instructional strategies. Prior research also suggests that beginning teachers may be more receptive to PD due to recent exposure to evidence‑based practices, while experienced teachers may resist altering established routines, though empirical support is limited (Didion et al., 2019; Shelton et al., 2022).

Reading proficiency, students’ confidence and interest in reading are key affective factors that significantly influence literacy development and broader academic success. Reading confidence refers to students’ self-perceived competence in their reading abilities, while reading interest reflects intrinsic motivation and enjoyment of reading activities. Both constructs are positively associated with reading performance and long-term engagement with texts (e.g. Mullis et al., 2023). In addition, McBreen and Savage (2021) found that those who receive targeted training in motivational reading instruction are better equipped to design learning experiences that build students’ self-efficacy and foster a lasting interest in reading.

Despite the foundational role of literacy in academic success, many primary teacher education programs across Europe do not sufficiently emphasize reading instruction. Leino et al. (2022) found that teachers who received specialized training in reading and language instruction reported higher self-efficacy, which positively influenced fourth-grade students’ reading outcomes. The relationship between PD and student outcomes has been explored with mixed results. Basma and Savage (2018), in their meta-analysis, found that only high-quality studies demonstrated a link between teacher PD and student reading achievement—and even then, the effects were most evident among teachers with shorter-term education. This study situates itself within these debates, examining whether differences in teacher education and PD participation as well as teaching experience translate into measurable differences in student reading literacy outcomes.

This study draws on data from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2021, coordinated by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). PIRLS assesses fourth grade reading literacy alongside extensive background information. In 2021, nearly 60 countries participated, including 21 EU member states (Belgium counted as two systems by language). For analysis, we retained countries with at least 30 beginning teachers, yielding 14 countries/educational areas and 3,960 teachers (791 beginning; 3,169 experienced). PIRLS uses stratified cluster sampling, selecting one or more classes per sampled school and assessing all students within them. This clustered structure requires appropriate statistical methodology. To examine links between teachers and student outcomes, we merged teacher questionnaire data with student level datasets. Across the 14 systems, 73,593 students were included. Teaching experience was classified with variable ATBG01 (years of teaching), defining beginning teachers as ≤5 years and experienced as >5 years. Initial teacher training was coded with ATBG04 (highest formal education) into three groups: below bachelor’s, bachelor’s, and master’s or higher. PD participation was measured with seven items (ATBG07AA–ATBG07AG) of different forms of formal PD in reading over the past two years. We quantified PD activity with a sum index, though in most analyses we employed a simple dichotomy (none vs. ≥1 activity). Student outcomes comprised Reading Achievement, Confidence in Reading, and Liking Reading. Achievement was measured with five plausible values (ASRREA01–ASRREA05), estimating latent proficiency based on test performance and background data (Foy & Yin, 2017). Confidence and interest were assessed with PIRLS scales ASBGSCR (six statements) and ASBGSLR (ten statements), derived from student questionnaires using IRT methodology (Foy & Yin, 2017). These scales were internationally standardized (mean = 10, SD = 2; Martin et al., 2017, Appendix 14A). Descriptive statistics (means and percentages), together with tests of statistical significance, provided the basis for exploration. Associations between teacher variables and student outcomes were tested with correlation and regression analyses. Standard errors and significance tests accounted for the three level structure (students nested in classrooms and schools) and complex sampling, using the jackknife method supported by PIRLS. Survey weights from student sampling were applied in population analyses. All analyses were conducted with SAS software utilizing IEA macros Jackreg and Jackregp tailored for methodologically appropriate analyses of PIRLS data.

In this study, beginning and experienced teachers were similarly distributed by education level, with nearly half holding a Master’s degree or higher. Country-level differences emerged: in France, Germany, Spain, and Malta, beginning teachers were more likely to hold advanced degrees, while the opposite was observed in the Czech Republic. These patterns reflect evolving qualification requirements in European teacher education (Esteves, 2017; European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021). PD participation did not consistently differ by experience. In most countries, experienced teachers reported slightly higher engagement, with significant differences in Austria, Spain, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, and Finland. Malta and France showed higher participation among beginning teachers, though not significantly. PD participation varied little by education level, except in the Czech Republic and France, where teachers with Master’s degrees were more active. These findings suggest PD engagement is often shaped by systemic support rather than teacher background. Associations between teacher characteristics, PD, and student outcomes were generally weak. Internationally, the strongest relationship was between PD participation and Students Like Reading. A modest positive link was found between the teachers with Master’s degrees and achievement. These results indicate PD may influence affective aspects of learning more than achievement, aligning with prior research on classroom climate (McBreen & Savage, 2021). Country case studies revealed limited explanatory power. In Finland, students of teachers with Master’s degrees scored higher, but PD participation correlated negatively with achievement and confidence. In Spain, teacher characteristics showed no significant associations. Overall, beginning and experienced teachers achieved similar student outcomes, suggesting teaching quality is broadly consistent across contexts despite differences in training and participation in PD.

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